1. What words are called homonyms?
2. How do homonyms differ from ambiguous words?
3. What is the difference between the ways of designating homonyms and polysemantic words in explanatory dictionaries?
As you know, the appearance of words differs in the set of sounds and their sequence.
But there are words whose sound composition, including stress, is completely the same. The spelling of such words also coincides, for example: translate (someone across the street) and translate (from one language to another); thin (skinny) and thin (leaky); motive (melody) and motive (reason).
Such words are homonyms in the language. The term homonym goes back to the Greek elements: homos - identical and onima - name. They superficially coincide with ambiguous words, but differ significantly from them. Homonyms are different words that denote different, in no way similar objects, signs, actions; There are no common elements of meaning between the lexical meanings of these words.
A polysemantic word also denotes different objects, signs, actions, but similar in some respect; There is a common element of meaning between the lexical meanings of polysemous words.
Homonyms as a phenomenon of the language dictionary, in addition, are characterized by the following mandatory features: belonging to the same part of speech, the same pronunciation and spelling, for example: start (a business) and start (some kind of animal); dashing (year) and dashing (rider); current (electric) and current (threshing platform). If at least one of these features is missing, words cannot be called homonyms. Thus, the words stove (a structure for heating a room and cooking food) and stove (cooking food in the heat) are not homonyms, since they refer to different parts of speech.
It is necessary to distinguish homographs, homophones and homophores from homonyms.
Homonyms, as is known, appear in a language in different ways: a) as a result of borrowing words from different languages, for example: bloc (union of states, party) from French and bloc (mechanism) from English, borrowing someone else’s word in the presence of an original Russian word (for example: club - a room from the English language and club (smoke) - a Russian word); b) as a result of the formation of new words from cognate words using different or identical suffixes (for example: wallet - a wallet for paper money and wallet - a paper industry worker).
At the same time, a language in many cases avoids the formation of homonyms if it already contains words that sound and spell the same. Thus, men - residents of the Kuban River valley - are called Kuban, and for the parallel name of women - residents of Kuban - there is no similar word, since there is the word kubanka meaning “special headdress”.
Homonyms in speech, like polysemantic words, differ in context, that is, in the verbal environment.
In explanatory dictionaries, homonyms are indicated by numbers at the top right. There are special dictionaries of homonyms.
Exercise 276.
Determine in what meaning the highlighted homonyms are used.
1. In a clear field, in the silver light of the moon, immersed in her dreams, Tatyana walked alone for a long time. (A. Pushkin). 2. I walked around the world a lot (from the song). 3. The fox lay down on her back and plays like a dog. (A.
Chekhov). 4. Fried chanterelles are delicious. 5. Small tangerine trees bear up to four thousand fruits every year. (K. Paustovsky). 6. The governor sent to them nine officials, or mandarins, with a retinue. (I. Goncharov). 7. In the whole world there is no more beautiful city in which you were born and live. 8. Peace will win the war.
Exercise 277.
Explain the different meanings of identical sounding nouns.
1. The situation required great endurance. The furnishings of the apartment were conducive to an intimate conversation.
2. An athlete injured his knee during training. The dancer performed a masterly knee dance.
3. Elephants do useful work with their trunks. During artillery firing, the trunk of the gun was damaged.
Exercise 278.
Find puns. Explain how they are built: on the use of homonyms or on the use of the same word in different meanings.
1. The realm of rhymes is my element, and I write poetry easily, without thinking, without delay, I run to line from line. I even refer to Finnish brown rocks with a pun...
2. Poetry has always been my element, my first verse sounded freely and truthfully, but, unsure of censorship, I verseed and now I write poetry only for friends.
3. One day, the coppersmith, while forging a basin, said to his wife in sadness: I will give the children a task and I will disperse the melancholy.
Exercise 279.
Read the article about homonyms. Make up sentences containing homonyms.
Homonyms are words that sound the same but have different meanings. Onion-weapon and onion-vegetable are the most obvious examples of homonyms. You can make dozens of humorous phrases using various homonyms. Well, at least these: A few drops on the window glass. Three times I told you: three times this glass is clean. Let's pull this beam into that deep beam. Know, there was no need to interfere with his knowledge. I once said that I had no time, but now I have more than enough time. Hail fell on the city of Peter. I told her, come to the pier.
There are whole chains of homonyms. For example, the word scythe has four meanings. You can create a phrase where all of them will be applied. “On a river spit, a girl was sharpening her scythe; everything was good about the girl: her face, her figure, and her long braid, but, unfortunately, she had a braid.”
(S. Narovchatov)
Exercise 280.
Make up sentences with the following words.
1. Simple - uncomplicated and simple - a forced break from work. 2. Peace is the universe and peace is the absence of hostility. 3) Translate - move to another place and translate - destroy. 4) Forge - a blacksmith's hearth with bellows and a blower, for heating metal and a forge - a brass wind instrument, a signal horn.
Exercise 281.
Read an excerpt from Carol Korda's poem, find homonyms, explain their meaning.
Strange things happen in nature:
The chair has a leg, but the chair doesn't move,
The clock often strikes, but we did not hear
So that they offend someone.
The key, the one that quenches thirst in the forest,
The door to the apartment does not open,
The apartment key is regular, the door key is
He won’t give us spring water to drink.
The term orthoepy (Greek orthos - straight, correct + epos - speech) is used in two meanings: 1) a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of normative literary pronunciation and 2) a set of rules establishing a uniform pronunciation that corresponds to the pronunciation norms accepted in the language.
Russian orthoepy includes rules for the pronunciation of unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants, hard and soft consonants, combinations of consonants, rules for the pronunciation of individual grammatical forms, and features of the pronunciation of words of foreign origin. Issues of stress and intonation that are sometimes included in orthoepy, which are important for oral speech, are not the object of consideration of orthoepy, since they do not directly relate to pronunciation. Stress relates to phonetics (serves to highlight a syllable in a word), to vocabulary (being a sign of a given word) or to grammar (being a sign of a given grammatical form). Intonation serves as an important expressive means of oral speech, giving it an emotional coloring, but is not related to the rules of pronunciation.
Formation of Russian literary pronunciation
The most important features of Russian literary pronunciation developed in the first half of the 18th century. based on the spoken language of the city of Moscow. By this time, Moscow pronunciation had lost its narrow dialectal features and combined the pronunciation features of the northern and southern dialects of the Russian language. Moscow pronunciation norms were transferred to other economic and cultural centers as a model and were adopted there on the basis of local dialect features. This is how pronunciation features were formed that were not characteristic of the Moscow orthoepic norm (the features of pronunciation were most clearly expressed in St. Petersburg, the cultural center and capital of Russia in the 18th-19th centuries).
The pronunciation system of the modern Russian literary language in its basic and defining features does not differ from the pronunciation system of the pre-October era. The differences between one and the other are of a particular nature (certain features of pronunciation vernacular have disappeared, in a number of cases there has been a convergence of pronunciation with spelling, and new pronunciation variants have appeared). Although there is no complete unification of literary pronunciation, in general, modern spelling norms represent a consistent system that is developing and improving. In the formation of literary pronunciation, theater, radio broadcasting, television, and sound films play a huge role, which serve as a powerful means of disseminating orthoepic norms and maintaining their unity.
Issues of correct literary pronunciation are studied by a special linguistic discipline - orthoepy (from the Greek orthos - correct and epos - speech). Orthoepic rules and recommendations have always been the focus of attention of Russian philologists, as well as representatives of those professions whose activities are directly related to public speaking before an audience: government and public figures, lecturers, announcers, commentators, journalists, artists, translators, Russian and foreign teachers languages, preachers, lawyers. But in recent years, there has been a noticeable increase in interest in the problems of oral culture among various sectors of society. This is facilitated by socio-economic changes in our country, democratization of all aspects of life. The practice of broadcasting parliamentary debates and hearings, and live speeches by government officials, leaders of parties and movements, political observers, and specialists in various fields of science and culture has become widespread.
Mastery of the norms of literary pronunciation, the ability to expressively and correctly formulate spoken speech is gradually being recognized by many as an urgent social necessity.
Historically, the development and formation of the rules of Russian orthoepy developed in such a way that the basis of literary pronunciation was Moscow pronunciation, on which some variants of St. Petersburg pronunciation were subsequently “layered.”
Deviation from the norms and recommendations of Russian literary pronunciation is regarded as a sign of insufficient speech and general culture, which reduces the authority of the speaker and scatters the attention of listeners. Regional peculiarities of pronunciation, incorrectly placed emphasis, “reduced” conversational intonation, and ill-considered pausing distract from the correct, adequate perception of a public speech.
Therefore, in order to successfully master the orthoepic norm or deepen knowledge of Russian literary pronunciation, it is necessary, from the point of view of methodological recommendations:
Ø learn the basic rules of Russian literary pronunciation;
Ø learn to listen to your own speech and the speech of others;
Ø listen and study exemplary literary pronunciation, which is mastered by radio and television announcers, masters of literary expression;
Ø consciously compare your pronunciation with the exemplary one, analyze your mistakes and shortcomings;
Ø correct them through constant speech training in preparation for public speaking.
The study of the rules and recommendations of literary pronunciation should begin with the distinction and awareness of two main styles of pronunciation: full, recommended for public speaking, and incomplete (colloquial), which is common in everyday communication. The full style is characterized primarily by compliance with the basic requirements of the orthoepic norm, clarity and distinctness of pronunciation, correct placement of verbal and logical stress, moderate tempo, correct pausing, neutral intonation pattern of the phrase and speech in general. With an incomplete pronunciation style, there is excessive reduction of vowels, loss of consonants, unclear pronunciation of individual sounds and combinations, excessive emphasis on words (including function words), inconsistent speech tempo, and unwanted pauses. If in everyday speech these features of pronunciation are acceptable, then in public speaking they must be avoided.
Linguistic tests.
A) Match and enter homonyms.
| Furnace, hearth for heating and melting metals, for firing ceramic products | Permanent staff | |
| Showing love and tenderness | A sense of proportion in behavior and actions | |
| The motivating reason, the basis, the reason for any action | The one who leads something or has the greatest influence in some area | |
| In some foreign federal states: administrative-territorial unit | Brass musical instrument | |
| Metrical musical unit, rhythm | A small predatory animal with a thin and flexible body | |
| A section of any printed work, marked by numbering or heading | The simplest rhythmic unit of melody, usually consisting of 2-3 sounds |
B) The left column shows the words of the Czech language, and the right column shows their meanings in random order. Considering the family ties between the Czech and Russian languages, match the words and their meanings; justify your answer.
(Reference: in the Czech language, the combination of letters ch denotes a sound similar to the Russian sound [x], the letter h is the same sound as in the words oh, aha; the letter y denotes a sound similar to Russian [ы], č - the sound similar to Russian [h]).
Q) Is it possible to form a simple comparative degree from the word bitter? If so, how is it formed?
D) Write words that contain the roots of obsolete words (their meanings are given in brackets): skora (skin), fat (fat), rattle (splinter), lepy (beautiful), st (passage).
D) In which Russian root is the alternation ы//о//а observed? Give examples of words with this root.
II. Linguistic tasks.
A) Read the sentences, find all the same-root words in them and explain your answer.
1. An athlete involved in hammer throwing assessed the distance to the metal fence with a trained eye.
2. An inconspicuous path led the methodologists to the building, where they had to outline the goals of the seminar.
B) Determine the meaning of the highlighted words in this text and explain their origin: “Some... flaunt in velvet and ride on gold, while others walk in shabby clothes and sit for whole days without eating. [Ivanushka]... stuffed mamon with chaff - and he’s right...” (M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “Virtues and Vices”).
B) In the XVIII-XIX centuries. the word hall had variants of other genders. Based on the analysis of examples from the literature, write these options and comment on the answer.
“Come into the hall,” he suggested, shaking his wet coat (M. Gorky “The Life of Klim Samgin”).
- I’m sitting alone in the hall and I want to write down what, for lack of... no, however, even out of negligence, I didn’t put it in my journal (I. A. Bunin “Diaries”).
- This room was probably formerly a hall (L.N. Tolstoy “War and Peace”).
D) Explain the reason for the spelling errors: bulyon, mayor, eg.
E) Replace the foreign words antithesis, security, imitation, force majeure, parity, credo, briefing with Russian synonyms. Make up sentences using these borrowed words.
E) Make up sentences with phrases: submit documents, provide documents; submit a report, submit a report.
G) Make up complex sentences in which the conjunctive word joins different types of subordinate clauses, indicate the types of subordinate clauses.
H) Read the text. Insert in place of the dots the most suitable word from those given in brackets. Which of the series of words in italics is not synonymous? Prove it.
And the conversation turned again to the war, about Bonaparte and ... (today's, present, current) generals and ... (official, government, government) people. The old prince seemed to be convinced not only that all the current leaders were boys, not ... (conscious, grasped, savvy, understood) and the alphabet ... (military, military, military) and state affairs, and that Bonaparte was ... ( small, insignificant, insignificant, petty) Frenchman who had ... (luck, success, happy ending, happiness) only because there were no longer Potemkins and Suvorovs to oppose him; but he was even convinced that there were no political ... (difficulties, complications, difficulties) in Europe, there was no war, but there was some kind of puppet comedy that modern people played, ... (simulating, pretending, pretending, pretending, disguising themselves) that they are doing business. Prince Andrei cheerfully... (endured, endured, endured, withstood, experienced) his father’s ridicule of new people and with visible joy... (challenged, provoked, encouraged, ignited) his father to talk and listened to him. (L.N. Tolstoy)
I) Indicate the basis on which these pairs of words are combined into one row. Continue the series with your own examples.
To go around the fields - to go around the horse; snack on sandwiches - bite the wire, saw wood - nail file; sweep the floor - sweep the seams...
K) Continue the series of words. Explain your decision.
Beauty - beauty, care - care, depth - depth...
K) On what grounds can one of the given words be considered a “third wheel”?
To impose, to possess, to clothe.
M) Determine which part of the word is the letter combination -е in the following words, and group them: rains, sons, friends, sewing, sparrow, sleigh, steppes, more beautiful, snakes.
H) Distribute these words into 2 groups based on one constant morphological feature of the verb. Explain your answer.
Bitter, pepper, salt, sour, sweeten.
O) Find the commonality in the meaning of the borrowed words: recipe, receptor, recipient.
P) Explain whether there is a difference in the meaning of the phrases “Turkish coffee” and “Turkish coffee”, “factory workers” and “factory workers”, “apartment twelve” and “apartment twelve”.
R) The book by philologist G. Guseinov gives an example of how the meaning of a number of words is transformed in people’s minds. This happened with the word “kopeck piece”: before it was two kopecks, closer to the nineties of the twentieth century it was a two-room apartment. Give your own examples of such words. Comment on the changes in the meaning of each.
C) Why words white-hot And confidentially have different suffixes, although both have the prefix before-
T) Explain how the meaning of the poem changes depending on the combined or separate spelling of the words enclosed in brackets. Which option do you think is correct and why?
My first friend, my priceless friend!
And I blessed fate
When my yard is secluded,
Covered in sad snow,
Your bell rang.
Gives (the same, too) consolation,
May he illuminate the imprisonment
A ray of lyceum clear days!
U) Write down the adjective 352-year-old without using numbers and analyze it according to its composition.
F) Characterize the sentence: Forewarned is forearmed.
X) Find the predicate in the sentences and determine its type. Explain your decision.
Let's watch. I'll go have a look. I will look with all my eyes. I can't see enough of it.
C) Indicate the lexical and grammatical features that distinguish the words in each of the selected pairs.
1. Grandma trains dinner. She's always delicious trains.
2. Grandmother cuts meat, but the knife is dull and bad cuts.
3. Grandma looks for grandchildren who are watching TV.
Ch) Determine the morphemic status of the highlighted parts of words. Prove your point.
1) You decide And do you want this task? – Resh And those are an example!
2) fox th tail - winter th day
3) go those- let's go those
Ш) In some Russian dialects the word has been preserved man, which means “order, beauty.” Remember and name a commonly used word that is often used to describe an awkward, clumsy, clumsy person. A clue can be a line from a well-known children's song, where an adverb derived from this word is used.
Sh) What, besides the meaning, is the difference between the words Wednesday (“surroundings, setting”) and Wednesday (“third day of the week”)?
E) Alyosha was in a hurry and allowed one word to be written in a non-standard graphic design in the dictation: “The new teacher gets to know the class.” Explain the reasons for choosing the spelling. Restore the initial form of the incorrectly written word in Alyosha’s spelling. Determine which part of speech this word belongs to, judging by its spelling in Alyosha. What could have caused this error? Is the spelling of Alyosha phonetically adequate?
Yu) Linguistic terms have a long and interesting history. What is the meaning of synonymous terms abevega And drop cap in the famous “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V.I. Dalia?
I) What tasks do “language difficulty dictionaries” perform? Name the dictionaries of this type known to you and their authors.
1) Determine what part of speech the word form is one in sentences:
A) All the time she was talking quietly with one elderly lady. (F.M. Dostoevsky).
B) I am guided only by good feelings for this girl. (M.P. Pogodin).
Q) Eh, barchuk, barchuk, how did you manage to treat a Kyrgyz like that in one day? (I.A. Bunin).
D) Sometimes it begins to seem that you and the machine are one powerful creature. (V. Sayanov).
D) I only want you to be happy. (A.N. Ostrovsky).
2) What phraseology is found in these texts? Explain its meaning. Highlight the borrowed word in it. Do you know what it means? What number was this word used to denote in Old Russian?
Look: Mikhailov, Petrov, Semenov, Alekseev, Stepanov... you can’t count them: our name is legion! (Goncharov I. A. “Oblomov”). Yes, if there are many artists like me, -
said Raisky, “then there are even more artists like you: their name is legion!” (Goncharov I. A. “Cliff”). This dear Sviyazhsky, who keeps his thoughts to himself only for public use and, obviously, has some other, secret to Levin, foundations of life, and at the same time he is with the crowd, whose name is legion, guiding public opinion with thoughts alien to him... (Tolstoy L.N. “Anna Karenina”)
3) The Russian language uses such stable expressions as frightened crow and
shot sparrow. What are the same and different about their meanings?
4) Tell us what functions the capital letter performs in the Russian language.
Show with examples.
5) In the comic poem “Soft Sign” O. Vygotskaya writes:
It is in the word "mother" and in the word "daughter"
And in the quiet lunar word “night”.
So as not to upset anyone,
He tries to soften everything:
Cut - cut! Eat - eat!
5) Give examples of the use of the apostrophe (sign ’) in modern Russian.
6) What rule did N.V. Gogol “break” in constructing sentences with homogeneous members? For what purpose is this done?
1. The governor was a great kind-hearted man and sometimes even embroidered tulle himself.
2. Agafya Fedoseeva wore a cap on her head, three warts on her nose and a coffee
hood with yellow flowers.
7) What does the following set of word pairs mean? Muddle - Get bored. Naked-Negorazd. Unpretentious-Obviva. Wrap around - Hammer. Odale-Oset. Osets-Get away. Screw-Pervachok;
8) Determine what types of dictionaries are represented by these dictionary entries. Briefly indicate what information can be obtained from these sources? (Students are offered fragments of dictionary entries)
9) In the Russian language, the word shadow has an unusual property, thanks to which linguists have concluded that in ancient times this word was not feminine, but masculine. State what this property is.
10) What sound is pronounced in place of the highlighted letters and why? ABOUT azis, b O ah, flam e nko, wat e rpolo, in e then, for the sake of O.
11) How is the word once formed? Give a few more words formed with the same suffix. What significance does it have? What is its origin?
So similar and so different - this is what we can say about homonyms. In this article we will look at why homonyms are needed in Russian and how to use them in writing and speech.
Homonym- This lexical component in Russian, which has a distinctive feature: it is written the same (or close), but has a different meaning. The word is of Greek origin: homos - identical, on ym a - name.
These words are important they decorate the Russian language, making it more interesting and rich. For example, the same word “marriage” has two meanings. First: poor quality work (product). Second: a union of two people, certified by the state. Strange coincidence, don't you think? But that's not what the article is about.
In contact with
About homonyms with examples
In fact, homonyms are very easy to understand. They are often used in speech and writing without even thinking about it. The same word can have several meanings. However, this is not new; similar things occur in other languages.
Nouns most often act as homonyms, but there are also verbs and adjectives among them.
Sometimes words change emphasis, and in some cases, the spelling of individual characters. Let's look at homonyms below (examples will be separated by commas):
- Peace (noun) – the absence of war, the nature surrounding us (Earth, Universe).
- Bow (noun) – a weapon for shooting arrows, a vegetable from the garden.
- Conclusion (noun) is a formulated solution to a problem (reasoning), the process of moving something or someone outside the territory (withdrawal of troops).
- A braid (noun) is an element of a woman’s hairstyle, a part of the shore protruding into the sea, a tool for mowing grass.
- Downtime (adj.) – stopping work, a quality indicator.
- Soar (verb) – fly in the sky (soar), smooth the fabric with steam (soar).
- Defend (verb) - withstand an attack, wait for your turn.
- The case when the same word appears in homonymy as both a verb and an adjective: drying - the process of drying, fruit.
You can practice on your own and try to compose a sentence with homonyms yourself.
Types of homonyms
The phenomenon of “sameness” of spelling with different meanings is called homonymy. From the point of view of coincidence in the spelling of part of a word, the following linguistic manifestations of homonymy are distinguished: actually lexical homonyms,homophones, homographs and homoforms.
Lexical - can be complete (all examples of grammatical variants match) and incomplete (not all grammatical forms match).
Homophones are words that sound the same when pronounced, but are spelled differently. Such as: raft - fruit.
Omoforms. In fact, these are different words that have the same form in some cases. They are similar to homophones, but, unlike them, they reveal a difference when declined. Example: pond - rod (go to the pond, hit with a rod), five - span.
Homographs are words that are identical in spelling, but are completely different in pronunciation. They are almost always distinguished by a stressed syllable: organ - Organ, muka - flour.
Homonyms: humor is appropriate
A bad student was once asked what she knew about “Earth Day”? She replied that “it’s dark and scary there.” It's funny and sad because she imagined something bottom ( I probably skipped geography lessons at school ),
although the question was asked about “Earth Day”.
The similarity of words is repeatedly used in jokes, playing up the “sameness” of their sound. Example: “The parrot said to the parrot: “Parrot, I’ll scare you!”
Homonymy is interesting because in a language it can create a certain paradox in the meaning of an expression. Russian proverbs, aphorisms and riddles are based on this.
Puzzles
People have long noticed the properties of homonyms and used them in making riddles. Thus, these words are well remembered by children, which develops the brain well and accustoms it to the perception of homonymous language.
Guess the riddles:
- What cats can't catch mice?
- Name them in one word: weapons, semi-precious stones and fruits.
- In the sea it is small, but on land it can cut the surface of the ice. Who is this (or what is this)?
- The old man was eating dry bread. Question: where did the fish bones on the table come from?
Sayings and proverbs
You can “play” with homonyms when composing sayings and proverbs. You can practice and come up with your own, you just need a little imagination and ingenuity:
- mow with a scythe, if you are not a scythe;
- go on the shelf in the summer so as not to put your teeth on the shelf in the winter;
- write a competent sentence to make a beautiful proposal to the girl.
Differences
Homonyms can easily be confused with polysemous words.
Polysemy means in Russian several meanings of one word, each of which is related to the other in meaning and does not differ radically from it.
Examples: a lady’s hat, near a nail, a mushroom. In all three cases, the meaning is not too different - it means some kind of upper part or accessory on the head.
The adjective "golden" is also used in several meanings - made of precious metal (golden bar), having the best qualities (golden man).
In the Russian language, along with others, there are also dictionaries of homonyms. In them you can look at the interpretation, study the tables and understand what homonyms are in the Russian language.
The most popular is Akhmanova’s explanatory dictionary (published in 1974). In it you can find a large number of articles (more than 2000), which describe homonyms (pairs of them). Each article contains information about the etymology of words, style characteristics, types of homonyms, types of word formation and much more. The dictionary also contains applications: translations of pairs of words into foreign languages, an index of taxonomy by type.
In these cases, we are no longer talking about lexical homonyms, but about morphological ones. Different forms of words that match in sound form are called homoforms. With lexical homonymy, sound coincidence extends to homonym words (braid And scythe, drown And drown), with morphological homonymy, individual, and at the same time quite definite, forms of words of one or another grammatical class coincide. For example: know And mouth - nouns and know And mouth - Verbs, simple - adjective and simple - noun, saw(noun meaning instrument) and saw(past tense of verb), braid - noun and braid - short adjective from oblique, my - pronoun and my- imperative form of the verb, three - numeral and three - imperative form of the verb, sing - perfect view to sing And sing - mature, mature.
From the point of view of the history of the semantic system of language, both polysemy and homonymy represent different stages in the development of polysemy in a word, one of the ways in which homonyms arise. Homonyms arise in a language most often through the breakdown of polysemy, through the formation of two independent nominative meanings in a word.
Along with the formation of homonyms by breaking up the polysemy of a word, another way of forming homonyms is also possible. The second way of forming homonyms is the sound convergence of different words.
Lexical homonyms (Greek homos - identical + onyma - name_ are two or more different in meaning, coinciding in spelling, pronunciation and grammatical design. For example, block1- union, agreement of states and block2 - the simplest machine for lifting weights; key1 - a specially shaped metal rod for unlocking and locking the lock and key2 - a spring gushing out of the ground.
In lexicology, two types of homonym words are distinguished - complete and incomplete (or partial).
(“7”) Full lexical homonyms include those words of the same part of speech in which the entire system of forms coincides. So, the above homonyms block1 And block2, key1 And key2 are complete homonyms.
Incomplete (partial) lexical homonyms include words of the same part of speech, which do not have the same entire system of forms. For example, words plant1 - industrial enterprise and plant2- device for actuating a mechanism (the second word does not have a plural number): world1- the totality of all forms of mothers in earthly and outer space and world2 - harmonious relationships, calmness, absence of hostility, war, quarrels (the second word is also not used in the plural form).
Homonym words are characterized primarily by the fact that they relate to one or another phenomenon of reality independently of each other, therefore there is no associative conceptual-semantic connection between them, characteristic of different meanings of polysemantic words. When realizing the lexical meaning of homonym words, their mixing is almost impossible. For example, no one will think that we are talking about key how“spring, source”, if, standing at the door, they ask for key, i.e., “a device for operating a lock.” The conceptual and thematic correlation of words is completely different, and the use of one of the homonymous words in the text (or in live speech) excludes the use of the other. (Unless, of course, there is a deliberate clash between them and a certain stylistic task).
So, lexical homonymy is observed among words of the same empty words. At the same time, two or more lexical homonyms (full or partial) are characterized by the absolute identity of the sound and spelling complex, i.e., external structure (cf.: defend1 - stand until the end defend2-- protect, defend3- to be at some distance, etc.) and all (or part) of grammatical forms (cf. similar changes in cases, the presence of the same forms of the number v of three words, which are complete lexical homonyms: bank1- vessel, bank2 - shallow, bank3 - special cross seat in a boat).
The emergence of homonyms in the Russian language
In the process of historical development of the dictionary, the appearance of lexical homonyms was due to a number of reasons.
One of them is semantic splitting, the disintegration of a polysemantic word. In this case, homonyms arise as a result of the fact that initially different meanings of the same word diverge and become so distant that in modern language they are perceived as different words. And only a special etymological analysis helps to establish their previous semantic connections By some characteristics common to all meanings. In this way, homonyms appeared in ancient times light- lighting and light- Earth, world, universe.
In 1972, homonymy of words was recognized and recorded for the first time in Ozhegov’s Dictionary duty - duty and duty- borrowed. In the 50s, these words were considered to be variants of the same word with different meanings . This indicates the duration of the process of splitting a polysemantic word and transforming its meanings into independent homonym words, and the inevitability of the appearance of “intermediate, transitional cases” when it is difficult to give an unambiguous semantic characteristic of the word. For example, the words are treated differently in different dictionaries to knit(tie with a rope) and to knit(knitting, crocheting), wave(something) and wave(go somewhere) fire(burn with flame) and fire(shoot in volleys), etc.
The divergence of meanings of a polysemantic word is observed in the language not only among native Russian words, but also among words borrowed from any one language. Interesting observations are made by comparing the homonymy of etymologically identical words: agent - representative of the state, organization, etc. and agent - the effective cause of certain phenomena (both words from Lat. agens, agentis-from agere- act); openwork - see-through mesh fabric and openwork- maintaining accounting books, documents until the last day (from French a ajour- end-to-end: summarized).
It should be noted that there is no consensus in modern lexicology on the role of the decay of a polysemantic word in the formation of homonyms. Thus, in the article “On the presentation of homonyms in the dictionary” (see: Questions of Linguistics, 1907, No. 3), he expressed the idea that new homonyms, their “reproduction is mainly due to polysemy.” -Fedoruk in the article “On the issue of homonyms in the Russian language” also considered “isolating the meaning of words” to be one of the productive ways of forming homonyms. However, he noted the unproductiveness of this method of formation, believing that “even fewer homonyms owe their formation to the semantic breakdown of a single lexeme into several homonymous lexical units like light- the universe, and light- lighting . argued that in the Russian language “there are the most homonyms that arose due to borrowings,” although he also recognized the fact that the process of derivative homonymy is active. he called random sound coincidences the main source of replenishing the language with homonyms . , recognizing the sufficient activity of homonyms. arising as a result of divergent polysemy, pointed at the same time to the great difficulties associated with the search for objective criteria for assessing the completion of the homonymization process. These articles, as well as a number of other written and oral presentations, served as a stimulus for the ongoing debate on issues of homonymy?
It seems to us most appropriate to consider that the method of splitting meanings is quite active, although its productivity for different structural types of homonyms is not the same. This is evidenced by the examples given above. This is also indicated by 248 cases of divergent polysemy, noted from among the 2360 homonymous words cited by her in the “Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language.”
Homonymy can be the result of a coincidence of sound, spelling and complete or partial coincidence of the form change of the original word and the borrowed one. For example, Russian (which has now become regional in use) lava - raft, platform and Russian lava - slaughter with a continuous development system coincided in sound with the words lava - battle order in formation (from Polish, fawa- row, rank) and lava- molten mineral mass erupted by a volcano (from Italian. lava), Russian cabin - cutting into pieces coincided with the word cabin - enclosed space on the upper deck of a ship or on the superstructure of a ship (from Dutch. roef- cabin); Russian forge-"blacksmith" coincided with horn -"horn" (from German. Horn) etc. But there are relatively few such examples in the language.
Homonyms also appeared as a result of the fact that two or more words borrowed from different languages (often at different times), due to certain phonetic reasons, turned out to be consonant in the Russian language. This is the way of origin of the already mentioned homonyms block- union (from French. block - association), block machine for lifting weights (from English. block). There is eule and a third word block - railway station where is the train control center located? to block - close, block), etc.
Often different words borrowed from the same language turn out to be homonymous in the Russian language. For example: banquet - gala dinner, reception (from French. banquet- feast) and banquet- 1) military a small elevation near the trench, designed for ease of rifle shooting, 2) sea and railway notch along the upper edge of the slope (from the French. banquette- will reduce from bane - curtain): quarry - the fastest running horse (from the French. corriere- running) and quarry specialist open-pit mining of shallow minerals (from the French. carriere- quarry); massage - massage (from French) masser - massage) and massage - special concentrate troops, aviation, etc. in one place (from French. masse- mass, lump, lump) etc.
The coincidence of the sound of Russian and borrowed words sometimes does not occur immediately. Words that were once pronounced and written differently during the historical development of the language coincide in both spelling and pronunciation. For example, words have gone this way onion - garden plant (an ancient borrowing from Germanic languages) and onion - hand weapon for throwing arrows (goes back to the ancient Russian word, in which in place of the vowel at there was a nasal sound o). With the disappearance of the nasal o from the alphabet, these words became homonyms, although incomplete (the first word does not have plural forms).
The emergence of homonymy of words is also considered to be the result of “phonetic coincidence of etymologically different Slavic words with a non-derivative base” world1 - universe and world2 - peace; par1- gas, air and par2-unsown field. But there are few such homonyms in the language. (Note, however, that the homonymy of words world1 And world2 is rather a consequence of graphic changes, the result of the disappearance of different spellings of letters And and i.)
In terms of structure, homonyms can be simple, or non-derivative, and derivative. Non-derivative homonyms are most often found in the circle of nouns. These are homonyms that, as already noted, arose as a result of coincidences of original and borrowed words, through phonetic transformations of original Russian words, as well as in the process of word formation. In the derivative homonymy of nouns and verbs, researchers usually distinguish the following varieties:
1) homonymous derivative stems each consist of two (or more) homomorphemes of the same type, for example: Lezgin-k-a(cf. Lezgin) h Lezgin-k-a(dance), sweatshirt(follower of the doctrine) and sweatshirt(special cut shirt);
Omomorphemes and (Greek. homos- identical - t - rnophe- form) call phonetically coinciding morphemes (affixes, inflections), different in meaning (i.e., homonymous morphemes). For example, the suffix -in- in words straw, bead, pea(singularity value), domina, shrpichina(increasing value), freak(disparagingly abusive meaning), pork, lamb(gives the meaning “animal meat”): prefix from- in verbs expel(delete value) and spend up(action exhaustion value): end -A in words wall(name of falling unit of number), Houses(nominal plural numbers), left(verb ending singular f. r.), etc.
2) homonymous derivative stems consist of morphemes that do not match in sound design, for example: wallet(paper industry worker) and bunazh-nick(paper wallet), drummer(percussive) and drummer(part of the shutter).
("8") 3) in a homonymous pair of words, the derivative of the stem is felt only in one of the words, and in the other (or others) a morphological process of simplification occurs, cf.: besiege - besiege(to put under siege, i.e. to surround with troops), besiege-besiege(identify the constituent part of the sediment), besiege - upset(i.e., ask to slow down at full gallop, move back, crouching slightly),
4) one of the homonymous stems is derivative. the other is non-derivative, for example: mink(will reduce to Nora) And mink(animal and animal skin).
calls such types of derived homonyms “words with a pronounced morphological structure” and distinguishes five subtypes among them: 1) homonymy of stems: prickly(look, grass, mockery) and prickly(sugar, firewood); 2) homonymy of affixes: Finnish(to Finn) and Finnish(knife): 3) omoni. miyu with varying degrees of articulation: straighten(galleys) and straighten(passport): 4) homonymy with different internal structure: crossbow(a type of weapon that shoots itself) and crossbow(the one who shoots himself): 5) homonymy of different parts of speech: bake(noun) and bake(infinitive).
Derivative homonymy among verbs (a process most active in modern language) “occurs in cases when in one verb the prefix merges with the base, losing its morphological distinctiveness or separability, while in another, homonymous with the first, it retains its semantic functions as a separate morpheme . For example: name“to call someone what” (cf. Name) And call(many people) speak"to charm one's teeth" (cf. CONSPIRACY) And start talking(start talking, start talking).”
Many of the derivatives of homonymous verbs are partial lexical homonyms. Wed. homonymy of derived verbs bury - from dig And bury - from drip, fall asleep - from sleep And fall asleep - from sprinkle. The formation of such homonyms is largely due to the homonymy of word-forming affixes, i.e., homomorphemes.
If the complete coincidence of the external form of two or more words is violated, and the words in the speech stream come closer to each other according to one or another linguistic characteristics, then the speech may not be about. lexical homonymy, but about phenomena that are only somewhat similar to it, but completely independent.
Linguistic phenomena similar to lexical homonymy
Homonymy as a linguistic phenomenon is observed not only in vocabulary. In the broad sense of the word, I sometimes call homonyms) different linguistic units (in terms of content, structure, levels of belonging), which coincide in sound (i.e. in terms of expression). In contrast to actual lexical (or absolute) homonyms, all other consonances and various types of coincidences are sometimes called relative, although here it would be more correct to talk not about homonymy in the broad sense of the word, and not even about relative homonymy, but about the homonymic use in speech of various types of homophones, which include How indicates that “all types of unity of sound or consonance are included - both in whole constructions and in combinations of words or their parts, in individual segments of speech, in individual morphemes, even in adjacent sound combinations.”
Consequently, the broad concept of homophony (Greek. homos- identical, phone- voice, sound) covers the consonance of a variety of linguistic units. For example: 1. Matching the pronunciation of words (the so-called homophones themselves, or phonetic homonyms): flu. - mushroom, labor - tinder, dog - doc etc. 2. (Coincidence of words and phrases: mute is not mine. skid- for the braid, for days - with ducks(a type of homophony). 3. Coincidence of individual forms of words (the so-called om o forms, or grammatical homonyms): saw(noun) - saw(verb in past tense); I'm flying(from fly) - I'm flying(from treat), young man - caring for a young mother etc.
Homographs (Greek. homos +graph6- I write), i.e. words that match in spelling. but differing in pronunciation, in particular stress. This clearly distinguishes them from both homophones and lexical homonyms. Modern researchers include over a thousand pairs of words like these: iris(candies) - iris(type of thread), while considering different types of homographs: lexical - atlas And atlas, lexical-grammatical- village(verb) and village(noun), I'm running(verb) and I'm running(from run)(noun), grammatical- addresses And addresses, houses And Houses", stylistic -- compass(lit.) and compass(marine), etc.
In modern studies, manuals, dictionaries a tendency has become established to use double names for those phenomena that are built on various kinds of coincidences and consonances. For example: homophones - phonetic homonyms, homoforms - grammatical homonyms, homomorphemes - morphological homonyms (or derivational homonyms). Sometimes. The following terms are also used: homosyntagms - syntactic homonyms, homostyles - stylistic homonyms. It seems that, despite the critical attitude of researchers to this kind of double terminology, especially to terms and phrases like “syntactic homonymy” and the like, its use does not cause confusion, but, on the contrary, allows one to more clearly define this or that linguistic phenomenon. And the point here is not what to call the phenomenon, but what kind of understanding is put into the name, what is hidden behind it.
So, lexical homonymy itself (full and partial) “cannot be confused or even brought together” (as noted) with homophony in the broad sense of the word, i.e. with all consonances and. similar sounds that occur in speech. The phenomena of purely graphic coincidence, i.e., homography, should be clearly distinguished from lexical homonymy proper and from different types of homophony. The combination of these completely different linguistic phenomena is possible only with their deliberate play, i.e., homonymous use in speech, which is no longer associated with the actual lexicological problems of homonymy, but with the analysis of its functional and stylistic role.
Homonymy and polysemy in Russian
The distinction between different homonym words and one word with many meanings, as already noted, causes many difficulties and cannot always be carried out unambiguously.
The difficulty of distinguishing between these phenomena and the complexity of their clear, consistent definition is also indicated by modern lexicographical practice. Thus, many words that are given as polysemantic in one dictionary are considered in another (or others) as different words, homonymous to each other.
All of the above testifies, first of all, to the complexity of the problem of distinguishing between homonymy and polysemy, and sometimes to an insufficiently strict and consistent approach to this issue, to an excessive enthusiasm for homonymization, which was rightly pointed out: “In the recent past, in our lexicography there has been a tendency to transform on a massive scale polysemy into homonymy. Let's say Kind in the sense of "good" ("good afternoon") and Kind in opposite evil considered not as two meanings of one word, but as two different words.”
What methods exist to distinguish homonymy from polysemy?
One of them is to substitute synonyms for each homonym or for all meanings of a polysemant, and then compare the selected synonyms with each other. If they turn out to be semantically close to each other, we have a polysemantic word; if not, we have homonyms. For example, let’s compare synonyms matched to words fight1 - battle and fight2 - servant boy (in foreign hotels, institutions). Words battle And servant have no similarities in semantics, therefore, fight1 And fight2 - homonyms, i.e. different lexical units.
If we expand the meaning of the word by synonymous substitutions the battle(in phrases like sea battle(battle), fist fight(fight, duel) bullfight(competition, battle), etc., then it is easy to notice the semantic similarity of the selected synonyms (battle - fight-competition), which confirms that in this case we have different meanings of one word. This is reflected in modern dictionaries. Let's look at the article for the word fight1 in BAS (abbreviated):
The battle. 1. A clash of hostile armies, detachments, military units, etc., battle, battle. 2. Fight, competition; martial arts, duel. 3. Fight, carnage. 4. Economic, commercial, etc. slaughter of animals. 5. Sound, ringing. 6. Breaking, breaking, damage (usually about dishes, glass, stone, etc. Force. direction of a firearm. 8. Old. Fire, fiery combat - firearms, guns, etc. 9. In common parlance. Brisk, troublesome , agile.
(“9”) The differentiation of polysemantic words from homonymous ones is helped by comparing the word forms of each of them, selecting related (single-root) words, i.e., establishing their derivational connections. If the word forms are the same or similar and there are related words that are identical in type of formation, and there is semantic proximity between them, we can talk about polysemy. For example, almost all meanings of the word discussed above the battle have similar word forms (boya, o battle, in battle. pl. the battle etc.) and related entities (combat, fighter, fighting, militant and etc.). If the word forms are different or (if they coincide) semantically clearly demarcated from each other, and the word-formation connections of words are identified quite clearly and do not lose their derivational significance in the language, we should talk about homonymy. For example, none of the derivatives listed above are related to the word fight2 with the meaning “servant boy”, since in the Russian language it does not have cognate words.
To distinguish between homonymy and polysemy, etymological information about words, i.e., clarification of their origin, is useful. Thus, the etymology of the above words is different: fight1 - with all meanings goes back to the common Slavic verb beat, A fight2 came from English (boy- boy).
Comparison of the translation of Russian homonym words into other languages is of great benefit. This significantly clarifies the idea of actual homonymization.
Of no small importance in the case of distinguishing between homonymy and polysemy is the identification of the thematic relevance of the word and the determination of typical models of lexical compatibility (microcontext), as well as the semantics of the entire context as a whole (macro context). Establishing the specific compatibility of compared words, i.e., characteristics and syntactic possibilities, makes it possible to identify semantic differences in the formation of larger (than syntagma) syntactic constructions with these words. This feature can also serve as one of the criteria for distinguishing similar linguistic phenomena.
Thus, for a reasonable delimitation of homonymy (and polysemy), it is necessary to use as much comparative data as possible, which will allow us to identify which features predominate: similar over distinctive, or vice versa - distinctive over similar. However, the decisive features for the stages of analysis (comparison of synonymous substitutions, selection of word forms, establishing derivational connections, translating into other languages, determining the boundaries of lexical compatibility and comparing the syntactic structure of macrotexts) are still strictly semantic, as modern researchers note, that should be recognized as fundamental in distinguishing homonymy from polysemy, they should be present in all. other discriminative comparisons.
Functional and stylistic role of homonymy and related phenomena
The functioning of homonyms in speech, as a rule, does not cause any particular difficulties. Their values do not collide with each other. Nevertheless, combining the meanings of homonymous words is possible. However, in this case it is determined by a certain stylistic goal, and this goal is different in different styles of speech. In poetry, the collision of homonyms serves as a means of creating an image, an expressive speech situation, pointedness, and journalisticity.
Intentional combination of two incomplete lexical homonyms adventure - incident and adventure - verb action adventure uses D. Granin in the novel “The Searchers”:
“Here, in the Directorate, was the brain of all stations, networks, construction, repair plants - the entire complex gigantic economy of the system. Directors of enterprises came here to negotiate the connection of a new workshop, a new house. Housewives were busy with their meters. House managers came with complaints about poor voltage. " The conversation took place at the door with the inscription "Department adventures." Andrei understood the true meaning of these words, but, looking at the sad employee of this department, he smiled. It’s a pity that there really is no such department of fascinating, exciting adventure!.. And suddenly this funny inscription somehow illuminated his arrival at the laboratory and his journey through the Administration building in a new way. Amazing events began in his life.”
Often there is a collision or even combination in one text of both homonym words and words that accidentally coincide in sound (homophones, homoforms, etc.). It is interesting to compare the intentional collision of partial homonyms There is -"to be, to be" and There is -“to eat”, as translated from “A Toast of Health” by Robert Burns:
Which There is, What There is - sometimes they can't There is,
And others can There is, yes they sit without bread
And here we have There is, What There is, yes at the same time There is, how There is, -
So, we only have heaven to thank!
The technique of combining different kinds of consonances is especially often used in poetic puns (French. calembour- pun). In them, such a collision also performs different functions. For example, it can be used for educational and explanatory purposes. We find a similar use in many of Y. Kozlovsky’s comic poetic puns, in particular in a series of poems under the general title “About various words - identical, but different.” For example:
Alena's braid is beautiful
Alena's braid is beautiful.
And the grass in the meadow is up to her.
Soon a spit will pass through the meadow:
The time for mowing is approaching.
("10") March
Snow said: - When I flock,
There will be a river of pigeons,
It will flow, shaking the flock,
Reflected pigeons.
In this case, complete lexical homonymy is used (braid1 - hair woven together and braid2 - agricultural implement), homophony of words and phrases (along the braid-mowing). Omoformy ( flock from melt - melt And flock - date pad. noun flock of pigeons - comparative degree of adjective blue And pigeons - genus. pad. pl. noun numbers pigeons).
Such comparisons illustrate the possibility of creating so-called homonymous situations. However, as already noted, not every time when there is consonance, words turn out to be lexical homonyms. Texts that use homonymous words, as a rule, are easily understood by speakers of the same language. However, when translating them into another language, difficulties may arise. Yes, in books. “Vremennik of the Pushkin Commission” (1939) we read about how P. Merimee, translating “The Queen of Spades”, used instead of the word dragged on -“while smoking, I inhaled tobacco smoke deeply”, phrase tightened his sash i.e. “he took a drag, pulling on his sash.”
Tomsky lit a pipe, dragged on and continued
In P. Merite
Tomsky lit a cigarette, tightened the sash and continued.
Lev Pushkin pointed out this inaccuracy to Prosper Merimee in 1851. And subsequently it was eliminated.
For a more in-depth study of the semasiological essence of homonym words, it is necessary to have a good knowledge of the corresponding dictionaries.
Homonym dictionaries
Homonymy is quite fully represented in modern explanatory dictionaries. However, as already mentioned, not all cases of homonymization of words are given equally consistently and clearly, which is explained by the lack of development of many theoretical issues of homonymy and the lack of generally accepted criteria for distinguishing between homonymy and polysemy.
In 1974, the first in Russian lexicographical practice, the “Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language,” compiled (hereinafter referred to as the Akhmanova Dictionary) was published. The dictionary includes over 2000 dictionary entries containing pairs (or groups) of homonyms. Each article contains:
1) an indication of one of the three main types of formation and its types: derived homonymy of words with a pronounced morphological structure, originally different words, divergent polysemy;
2) grammatical information about words,
3) stylistic characteristics,
4) etymological data;
(“11”) 5) translation of each of the homonymous words into three languages: English, French, German:
6) examples of the use of homonyms in phrases or sentences.
The dictionary is supplemented by an “Index of the attribution of homonyms to various types of homonymy” and two Appendices. Appendix 1 provides a dictionary of so-called functional homonymy (such as: The patients entered the office And My brother has bad legs) i.e., such words, the homonymization of which occurs during their functioning in speech. Appendix II provides a dictionary of homographs. Akhmanova’s Dictionary has collected a lot of interesting material; for the first time, a translation of homonymous words into other languages has been given, and an attempt has been made to distinguish . phenomena of homonymy proper and functional homonymy, etc.
All this makes this dictionary a valuable tool, especially for students of translation departments.
In 1976, the “Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language,” compiled (edited by N. M. Shansky), was published in Tbilisi. containing four thousand homonym words. The phenomenon of homonymy is understood somewhat more broadly and includes as homonymous all words “with different lexical and/or grammatical meanings, but with the same (identical) spelling and/or pronunciation,” i.e. lexical homonyms, homoforms, homophones and homographs. The dictionary identifies various groups of absolute and relative homonyms, which take into account the homonymy of significant and function words. All given words are provided with an interpretation of the meaning, etymological marks, and stresses. There are no examples of their use in the text or phrases. There are also no stylistic marks.
In 1978, the 2nd edition of this dictionary was published, which differs significantly from the previous one. Homoforms like oblique(solid, falling, dry, l.r.) and oblique(adj. male), but many new homonym words have been introduced. Interpretations of the meanings of words are clarified, emphasis is placed in homographs, and stylistic notes are given. The new edition of the dictionary (as well as the 1976 dictionary) will be very useful to everyone who is actively mastering and creatively using the lexical riches of the Russian language.
Definitions of the phenomena of homonymy and homonyms belonging to different linguists
1. a) “Homonymy Spanish homonymia. Sound coincidence of two 1or more different linguistic units. Sound homonymy. Lexical homonymy. Homonymy of endings. Homonymy of case forms. Homonymy of phraseological units. Partial homonymy...
b) Homonyms (words that sound alike) English homonyms, fr. homo lnymes, German Homonyme. Two (or more) different linguistic units that match in sound (i.e. in terms of expression). Russian mascara - ink, key (in the lock) - key (spring)" (O. S. Akhmanova. Dictionary of linguistic terms).
2. “Homonyms are words that sound the same, but have different meanings.
(...) Homonyms can be of different types (...) Homonyms of the first type are usually called lexical (key And key), homonyms of the second type - morphological (three And three). A special and more complex case is lexico-grammatical homonyms [such as flow And flow]» (. Introduction to the Science of Language).
3. “A special phenomenon important for the nature of language is homonymy. Homonyms name two or more words that sound the same, but have completely different meanings. Homonymy can have different degrees of completeness - starting from homonymy of only individual forms (Russian, I'm flying- 1st l. units h. from “fly” and “heal” (...)) and ending with a coincidence in the entire system of forms: (...) scythe: 1) “agricultural tool”; 2) “hair removal” (...)” (L. A. Bulakhovsky. Introduction to linguistics. Part 2).
4. “Homonyms are words that differ in meaning, but are the same in sound and spelling.
Homonyms are divided into lexical and lexico-grammatical.
Lexical homonyms are words that have different meanings and have the same sound and spelling in all grammatical forms. For example, the words outfit(clothing) and outfit(order) ...
Lexico-grammatical homonyms include words that do not have the same sound and spelling in all grammatical forms. Among lexico-grammatical homonyms, there are those that have the same grammatical forms. For example, in nouns shelf(action on the verb weed) and shelf(horizontal board) all singular case forms coincide in their sound and spelling. In the plural there cannot be such a coincidence, since the abstract noun shelf has no plural forms" {, . Modern Russian literary language).
5. “The term “homonymy” should be applied to different words, to different lexical units that have the same sound structure in all their forms.
(...) If homonyms are words that are different in their semantic structure, and sometimes also in morphological composition, but identical in sound structure in all their forms, then homonyms should be distinguished not only from consonant homophonic or sound-matching speech chains or syntactic segments of a different quality, but also from homophone morphemes.
However, it goes without saying that transitional and mixed types are possible here. In relation to them it is possible. apply the term "partial homonymy"" (. On homonymy and related phenomena).
6. “Words that sound the same, but are in no way related to each other in meaning, are called homonyms, and the very phenomenon of coincidence in one sound of words with completely different meanings is called homonymy.
("12") So, club(organization, premises) and club(smoke) are homonyms, like words simple(easy, ordinary, easy) and simple(inaction, stoppage of work)” (L. V. Kalinin. Vocabulary of the Russian language).
7. “If you define homonyms (Greek. homonyma from homos-same and entanglement - name) as words with different lexical and/or grammatical meanings, but with the same (identical) spelling and/or pronunciation, then the following types can be objectively distinguished.
1) Homonyms that have different lexical and grammatical meanings, but identical spelling: excellent (1. Adverb. 2. Short neuter adjective) (...)
2) Homonyms that have different lexical (but the same grammatical) meaning and identical spelling and pronunciation: onion (1. Plant. 2. Weapon) (...)
3) - Homonyms that have different grammatical (but the same lexical) meaning and identical spelling and pronunciation; Georgian (1. Noun in the nominative case;) singular. 2. The same noun in the genitive plural form) (...)
4) Homonyms that have different lexical and grammatical meanings and the same spelling (with non-identical pronunciation): squirrel (1. Feminine noun V nominative singular form. 2. Masculine noun in singular genitive form) (...)
5) Homonyms that have different lexical, but the same grammatical meaning and the same spelling (with non-identical pronunciation): Organ and organ (...)
6) Homonyms that have different grammatical, but the same lexical meaning, and the same spelling (with non-identical pronunciation): waves and waves (...)
7) Homonyms that have different lexical and grammatical meanings with identical pronunciation (but different spellings): forests and fox (...)
8) Homonyms that have different lexical but identical grammatical meanings with identical pronunciation (but different spellings): illuminate and sanctify (...)
9) Homonyms that have different lexical but identical grammatical meanings with identical pronunciation (but different spellings): ninety and ninety (...)
The named types of homonyms form two main groups: 1. Absolute homonyms (1-3) and 2. Relative homonyms. consisting of homographs (4-6) and homophones (7-9) (...) (N.P. Kolesnikov. Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language).
8. “(...) Homonyms are different words that have the same sound composition. Within homonymy in a broad sense, one should distinguish:
1) Homophones, i.e. cases such as pond And rod, words that sound the same in the nominative and accusative cases, but have a different composition of phonemes, which is found in other forms of these words and in derivatives: pond rod (...).
2) Homoforms, i.e. cases when two words have the same pronunciation and composition of phonemes, and only in one form or in separate forms, for example, three- "3" and three! - imperative from verb rub...
3) Actually homonyms, which, in turn, can fall into significantly different groups:
a) Genuine homonyms, i.e. words that sound the same, have the same phoneme composition and morphological composition (the same affixal morphemes, but different roots) and at the same time in the inflectional forms of the elephant, but have different origins from two words that did not previously coincide in meaning, for example: ...llama-"hoofed animal" and lama -"Tibetan priest"... .
b) Those cases when “the same words” are formed from the same roots or stems, independently of each other, i.e. in the same part of speech and the same inflection matches, for example: cabbage roll -"blue paint" and cabbage roll -“a dish of cabbage stuffed with meat”...
c) Finally, there may be cases when the same word is borrowed at different times, with different meanings and, obviously, from a not entirely identical source, for example: from Italian banda - gang - “a collection of bandits” and later, from the jargon of Italian musicians, banda -"a brass band playing an opera on stage" (whose members... not bandits, but gangsters).
d) A special type of homonymy is the case of the so-called conversions[given in footnote: conversion - from Latin conversio-“appeal.” - M.F.], when a given word passes into another part of speech without changing its morphological and phonetic composition, for example, evil - short neuter adjective and evil - adverb...” (. Introduction to linguistics).
(“13”) 9. “Homonyms (from Greek. homos - identical + onyma, onoma - name). Words that belong to the same part of speech and sound the same, but have different meanings. Marriage(marriage) and marriage(damaged products)...
Homonyms are complete (absolute). Homonyms in which the entire system of forms coincides. Key(for castle) - key(spring) ...
Homonyms are partial. Homonyms in which not all forms have the same sound. Weasel(animal) - weasel(show of tenderness) (diverge in the genitive plural form: caresses, caresses)...
Homonyms are simple. Non-derivative words that sound the same. Club(smoke) -club(factory)...
Derivative homonyms. Homonyms arising in the process of word formation. Force(furniture, furnish) - force(to force) (...)” (D. E. Rosenthal And . Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms).
10. “From the different lexical meanings of a polysemantic word, words that are in homonymous relationships should be clearly distinguished...
(...) Homonyms are words that sound alike. but having completely different meanings that cannot now be deduced from each other, which coincide with each other both in sound and in writing in all (or in a number of) their inherent grammatical forms. Homonyms, therefore, represent words of the same grammatical class." (. Lexicology of the modern Russian language).
11. From polysemantic words, i.e. words that in different contexts (in other words, depending on the lexical-semantic positions in which they appear) have different meanings, it is customary to distinguish homonym words. (...)
(...) Homonyms are words that have the same sound, the same form, but whose meanings are in no way related to each other, that is, they do not contain any common elements of meaning, no common semantic features. Homonyms are separate, independent words, double words. (...) (D.N. Shmelev. Modern Russian language. Vocabulary).