Local Council of 1503 (Council of the Widowed Priests)
About the Cathedral
The Cathedral of 1503, also known as the "Cathedral of the Widowed Priests" - the Cathedral of the Russian Orthodox Church, which was held in Moscow in August - September 1503. The task of the council was to resolve a number of disciplinary issues, in respect of which two resolutions were issued. However, it remained in the memory more as a cathedral, at which the issue of monastic land ownership was decided.
Council definition on the non-receipt of bribes from clergy for ordination.
(Quoted from “Acts collected in the libraries and archives of the Russian Empire by the archeographic expedition of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. Volume I" St. Petersburg. 1836 Pages 484-485)
We are John, by the grace of God, the Sovereign of All Russia and the Great Prince, and my son, Prince the Great Vasily Ivanovich of All Russia, having spoken with Simon Metropolitan of All Russia, and with Archbishop Genadiy of Novgorod the Great and Pskov, and with Nifont Bishop of Suzdal and Torusky, and with Protasy Bishop Ryazan and Murom, and with Vasyan Bishop of Tfersky, and with Nikon Bishop of Kolomensky, and with Tryphon Bishop of Sarsky and Poddonsky, and with Nikon Bishop of Perm and Vologda, and with archimandrites, and with abbots, and with everything shenny cathedral, and according to the Rule of the saints The Apostle and the Holy Father, which is written in the Rules of the Holy Apostles and the Holy Father, from the dismissal of the saint, from the Archbishops and Bishops, and from the archimandrites, and from the abbots, and from the priests, and from the deacons, and from the entire priestly rank, do not have anything, and they laid it down and strengthened: what from now forward to us as a saint, to me the Metropolitan and to us as Archbishop and Bishop, or who other Metropolitans and Archbishops and Bishops in all the lands of the Russians will be on those tables after us, from the appointment of St. Ar Khіepiskupov and Episkupov, archimandrites and abbots, and priests and deacons, and from the entire priestly rank, do not have anything for anyone, nor do we have a commemoration to leave anything to anyone; so the letters of letters left, to the printer from the seal and the deacon from the signature, do not have anything, and to all our duty officer, my metropolitans and our archbishops and bishops, do not take any duty from the setting; so the saint, me the Metropolitan and us the Archbishop and Bishop, the archimandrites and the abbots, and the priests, and the deacons, from the sacred places and from the churches do not have anything, but every time the priestly rank without bribe and without any gift to put on his m ѣsto let go; and according to the Rule of the Holy Apostles and Holy Fathers, we appoint priests and deacons as hierarchs, a deacon is 25 years old, and in the priests to complete 30 years, and below those years, do not put a priest or a deacon with some deeds, but put 20 years in clerks, and below 20 years do not put in podiaks; and to which the saint from among us and after us, Metropolitan, Archbishop, or Bishop, in all the Russian lands, from this day forward, by some negligence dares to lay down and strengthen the transgression, and take something from the dismissal or from the priestly place, yes will be deprived of his dignity, By the rule of the holy Apostle and holy Father, may he himself and the one appointed from him be cast out without any answer.
And for the greater approval of this code and strengthening, we John, by the grace of God, the Sovereign of All Russia and the Great Prince, and my son, Prince Vasily Ivanovich of All Russia, have added our seals to this charter; and our father Simon, Metropolitan of all Russia, put his hand to this letter and attached his seal; and the Archbishop and the Bishops laid their hands on this letter. And written in Moscow, summer 7011 August on the sixth day.
I am the humble Simon, Metropolitan of All Russia, with the Archbishop and Bishops, and with the archimandrites, and with the abbot, and with the whole holy cathedral, having searched the holy Apostles and the holy Father according to the Rule, the fortresses, so that that work ahead with us and after us is indestructible was , to this letter he put his hand and attached his seal.
The humble Archbishop of Veliky Novgorod and Pskov, Genadei, put his hand to this letter.
The humble Bishop Nifont of Suzdal and Toru put his hand to this letter.
The humble Bishop Protasey of Rezan and Murom put his hand to this letter.
The humble Bishop Vasyan of Tver put his hand to this letter.
The humble Bishop Nikon of Kolomensky put his hand to this letter.
The humble Bishop Tryphon of Sarsky and Poddonsky put his hand to this letter.
The humble Bishop Nikon of Perm and Vologda put his hand to this letter.
From a modern Manuscript belonging to G. Stroev.
This act is compared with two lists of the 17th century
Council definition, on widowed priests and deacons and on the prohibition of monks and nuns to live in the same monasteries
(Quoted from “Acts collected in the libraries and archives of the Russian Empire by the archeographic expedition of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. Volume I" St. Petersburg. 1836 Pages 485-487)
We are John, by the grace of God, the Sovereign of All Rus' and the Great Prince, and my son, the Great Prince Vasily Ivapovich of All Russia. What did our father Simon, the Metropolitan of All Russia, say to us, that he is a hedgehog about the Holy Spirit with his children, with Genadiy Archbishop of Veliky Novgorod and Pskov, and with Nifont Bishop of Suzdal and Torus, and with Protasy Bishop of Ryazan and Mur bsky, and with Vasian Bishop Tfersky, and with Nikon Bishop of Kolomensky, and with Tryphon Bishop of Sarsky and Poddonsky, and with Nikon Eniskop of Perm and Vologotsky, and with archimandrites, and with abbots, and with the whole sacred cathedral, they searched what was in our Orthodox church in Many Christian Greek Laws priests, priests and deacons, widowers, strayed from the truth and, forgetting the fear of God, did debauchery, after
concubines kept their wives, and the whole priesthood acted, it’s not worthy of them to do it, for their sake of lawlessness and bad deeds: and they searched the council of that, and according to the Rule of the Holy Apostles and Holy Fathers, and according to the teaching of the holy and great Wonderworker Peter the Metropolitan of All Russia, and according to the writing of the Metropolitan of All Russia, laid down and strengthened about the priest and about the deacons about widowers, that, for the sake of lawlessness, from now on, do not serve as a priest and deacon as a widower; and whom the priests and deacons were caught as concubines and who said to themselves that they had concubines, and they brought their letters to the saint, otherwise they would not keep their concubines as priests and deacons in the future, but live them in the world except for the church, and the top of them to grow their hair, and wear the clothes of the world, and give tribute to them with worldly people, but do not act or touch any priestly affairs; and to whom those priests and deacons, widowers, without giving up their appointments, let them go somewhere to distant places, taking themselves a young woman, and call themselves a wife, and learn to serve in the metropolitan, in the archbishops or in the episcopates with negligence, and who will be convicted of that, otherwise betray those about it to the Gradtsk judges. And which priests and deacons are widowers, and there is no word on them about the fall of the prodigal, and they themselves said about themselves that after their wives they live cleanly, and they settled about those that they stand in churches on wings and partake of priests in altars in patrons, and even in their homes they keep patrons, and take communion as a deacon in the altar, even in surplice with a ular, and not serve as either a priest or a widower deacon; and which priests or deacons in those places and at those churches learn to serve, and they should not send those priests and deacons widowers from churches, but give priests to service widows
as a priest, and as a deacon, a service deacon, a widower, the fourth part of all church income; and who do not teach those priests and deacons widowers in the church to stand on the porch, but teach worldly things, and do not give the fourth part of the church in all church income; and who are those priests and deacons widowers who, after their lives, live cleanly, but want to dress themselves in monastic attire, and such, thanks to God's fate, go to monasteries and from the spiritual abbot from the hegumen are tonsured and renewed themselves about everything with pure repentance to their father spiritual and worthy, if the essence is worthy, and then such, with the blessing of the hierarch, let them priest in monasteries, and not in secular ones. And that blacks and blacks lived in the same place in the monasteries, and the abbots served with them, and they laid down that from this day forward blacks and blues did not live in the same monastery; and in which the monasteries teach the life of the blacks, otherwise serve the abbot, and the blacks do not live in that monastery; and in which the monasteries will teach the life of blueberries, otherwise they serve as priests of the Belts, and do not live as blacks in that monastery. And to whom the priest and whose deacon will drink for days, do not serve him the next day.
And for the greater approval of this code and strengthening, we John, by the grace of God, the Sovereign of All Russia and the Great Prince, and my son, the Prince the Great Vasily Ivanovich of All Russia, added their seals to this charter; and our father Simon, Metropolitan of All Russia, put his hand to this letter and attached his seal; and the Archbishop and Bishops laid their hands on this letter. And written in Moscow, in the summer of 7000 on the second ten of September.
Yaz Simon, Metropolitan of All Russia, put his hand to this letter and attached his seal.
Yaz humble Genady, Archi e Piskop V e face O th Novgorod and Pskov, c e th gra m I put my hand on it.
Yaz the humble Nifont, Bishop Suzh d Alsky and Torussky, put his hand to this letter.
Yaz the humble Protasey, Bishop of Ryazan and Murom, to this charter the hand of St. O I applied.
Yaz the humble Basian, Bishop of Tfersky, put his hand to this letter.
Yaz the humble Nikon, Bishop of Kolomna, put his hand to this letter.
Yaz the humble Tryphon, Bishop of Sarskaya and Poddonskaya, put his hand to this letter.
Yaz humble Nikon, Bishop of Perm and Vologda, put his hand to this letter.
This Council definition was written off from a modern manuscript belonging to G. Stroev, and checked against two lists of the century.
Diploma of Metropolitan Simon in Pskov
(Quoted from “Acts collected in the libraries and archives of the Russian Empire by the archeographic expedition of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. Volume I" St. Petersburg. 1836 Pages 487-488)
Blessing of Simon, Metropolitan of All Russia, O Holy Spirit, lord and son of our humility, the noble and blessed Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich of All Russia, and his son, the noble and blessed Grand Duke Vasily Ivanovich of All Russia, to the vicar of Pskov Prince Dmitry Volodimerovich, and all ѣm posadnik Pskov, And the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity, and the Cathedral of St. Sophia, and the Cathedral of St. Nicholas, and all the priests and all the Christ-named of the Lord people. I am writing to you, sons, about these things that I am here, speaking to my master and son with the Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich of All Russia and with his son with the Grand Duke Vasily Ivanovich of All Russia and the hedgehog about the Holy Dus with my children, with Genadiy Archie piskupom Great Novgorod and Pskov, and with all the Bishops of our Russian Metropolis, with the archimandrites and with the abbots, and with the whole holy cathedral, searched for the fact that in our Orthodox faith of the peasant Greek law, many priests, priests and deacons, widowers, have strayed from the truth and, for be the fear of God , they did lawlessness, after their wives they kept concubines, and the whole priesthood acted, but it is not worthy of them to do it, for their sake of lawlessness and bad deeds; and we in the cathedral searched about it and, according to the teachings of the holy great Wonderworker Peter Metropolitan of All Russia and according to the writings of Photius Metropolitan of All Russia, put us to bed and strengthened about priests and about deacons, about widows, that from this time forward the priest and Do not serve as a widower deacon for everyone; and whom the priests and deacons were convicted of being concubines and who themselves said that they had concubines, and they brought their letters to the saint, otherwise they should not keep the concubines by the priest and the deacon ahead, but by living in the world except for the church , and then grow your hair, and wear worldly clothes, and give tribute to them with worldly people, but in no way should they act or touch the priestly affairs; and to whom those priests and deacons, widowers, without giving up their orders, go down somewhere to a distant place, taking a wife of their own, and call her his own wife, but teach them to serve in negligence, in the metropolis, in the archbishoprics or in the episcopates, and which that they will convict, otherwise they will betray them to city judges; and which are priests: and deacons, widowers, and there is no word on them about the fall of the prodigal, and they themselves said about themselves that after the zhon they live cleanly, and we laid the council about those that they stand in churches on krylos and take communion with priests in altars in a patrachel and even in their houses keep a patrachel; but to take communion as a deacon in the altar in the surplice with a ular, and not serve as a priest, or a deacon, or a widower; and which priests and deacons in their place will be taught to serve in those churches, and they should not send widowers from the churches, but give them a fourth part of all church income as priests and deacons b; and to whom in those priests and deacons in the church they will not stand on the krylos, but they will learn worldly deeds, and do not give them fourth parts in church income. And who are those priests and deacons, widowers who live cleanly after their wives, but want to dress themselves in monastic attire, and such, thanks to God's fate, leave for monasteries and from the spiritual rector from the hegumen are tonsured, and, having renewed themselves about everything with honest repentance to their father spiritual, and in dignity, if the essence is worthy, and then such, with the blessing of the saints, let him priest in monasteries, and not in worldly ones. And that in the monasteries in the same place lived the blacks and the blues, and the abbots served with them, and we laid down that from this day forward the blacks and the blues did not live in the same place in the monastery; and in which the monasteries are taught to live by the blueberries, otherwise they serve as priests of the balts, and do not live as a clergy in that monastery; and whose priest and deacon will get drunk for days, otherwise do not serve him the next day. And so that from this time forward in Pskov and throughout the Pskov land, all priests, priests and deacons, widowers, did not serve; but about everything, about priests and deacons, and about widowers, and about monasteries, because, as it is written in this letter of mine; and I bless you.
Written 7012 July on the 15th day.
And this letter lay before the posadniks of Pskov and the priests at the lavitsa, August on the 11th day.
From the Pskov Chronicle (іn F, l. 299-301), located,
Arkhangelsk Province, in the archives of the Kholmogorvsky Cathedral under No. 33.
"The word is different"
(Quoted by - Begunov Yu. K. “The word is different” - a newly found work of Russian journalism of the 16th century about the struggle of Ivan III with the land ownership of the church // Proceedings of the Department of Old Russian Literature. - M., L .: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1964. - Volume XX. - S. 351-364.)
This word is different from the original book.
At the same time, at sunrise, the great prince Ivan Vasilyevich at the metropolitan's and with all the bishops and all the monasteries of the village to take and connect everything to his own. The metropolitan and the bishops and all the monasteries from their own treasury with money and plenty of bread from their granaries.
He calls upon the metropolitan and all the lords and archimandrites and abbots, and opens his own thoughts to them, and obeying him all, fearing that their power will not fall away.
The Grand Prince calls on the Grand Abbot Serapion of the Trinity Sergius Monastery, and even to that he will give the village of the Sergius Monastery. Serapion, hegumen of Trinity, comes to the cathedral and says to the Grand Duke: “Ah, I came to the life-giving Trinity in the Sergius Monastery, sat down in the monastery not in the air, having only a staff and a mantle.”
The Nile, the black from Belaozero, with a high life II, comes to the Grand Duke, and Denis, the black of Kamensky, and they say to the Grand Duke: “The black has not worthy of the village.” To this same priest and Vasily Borisov, boyar of the Tfersky land, the same children of the Grand Duke: and the great prince Vasily, Prince Dmitry Ugletsky joined his father's advice. And the diyaki of the introduction according to the Grand Duke's verb: "The black man is not worthy to have a village." Prince Georgy is all-bright nothing about these words.
He comes to the Metropolitan to Simon Serapion, hegumen of the Trinity, and says to him: “O sacred head! I am a beggar against the Grand Duke. You don't say anything about them." The Metropolitan, however, answered the hegumen Serapion: “Depart Denis the black man from you, I speak with you in one word.” Serapion said to the metropolitan: “You are the head of all of us, are you afraid of this?”
The same metropolitan, having copulated with archbishops and bishops, and archimandrites, and abbots, and having come with everyone, said to the Grand Duke: “I don’t give away the villages of the most pure churches, they were also owned by the former metropolitans and miracle-workers Peter and Alexei. It is the same with my brethren, archbishops and bishops, and archimandrites, and abbots, they do not give away church villages.
The same one says to Metropolitan Genadiy, Archbishop of Novgorod: “Why don’t you say anything against the Grand Duke? With us, you are much more verbose. Now you don't say anything, do you? Genadiy answered: “You say, you, I have already been robbed before this.”
Genadiy began to speak against the Grand Duke about church lands. The great prince, barking his mouth with many barks, for his passion is money-loving. The great prince, having left everything, says: “Serapion, hegumen Trinity, does all this.”
After these there is a parish, calling Ilemna, and some of these people, for evil, living near the parish of that, navadish to the Grand Duke, saying: “Conan the black man yelled over the land boundary and yelled at your land, the Grand Duke.” The great prince soon ordered the black man to present himself to his judge. Having little tested the black man, she sent him to bargain and led him with a whip to beat. And on the hegumen of Serapion he commanded to take 30 rubles as a weekly worker. And he calls the cellarer Vasiyan and with a rebuke ordered all the villages of the monastic letters to be brought to him. Vasyan, the cellarer, calls on the idlers and says to them: “Brothers, take the money, as the great prince commands.” And not a single one of them stretches out their hands for money, saying: “Don’t wake us up with our hands stretched out on the silver of the Sergius Monastery, but we won’t take Ogze’s leprosy.” Serapion, the abbot, enters the Church of the Epiphany of the Lord our God Jesus Christ and sends the cellarer Vasyan to the monastery and ordered him to be an old elder with letters, which do not come from cells. Let the priests and the rest of the brethren not depart from the church, the forthcoming race of Sergius the Wonderworker day and night. The old elders moved, ovii on horses, others on chariots, others on stretchers. On the same night, on the same day, the elders moved out of the monastery, but a visitation from God came to the Grand Duke, the autocrat: he took away his arm and leg and eye. At midnight, he sends to hegumen Serapion and to the elders, asking for forgiveness, and sends alms content to the brethren. Serapio And the abbot with his brother returned to his monastery, like some warriors of the stronghold from the brothers returned, giving glory to God, the great prince, the autocrat, humbled.
Cathedral response 1503
The meeting was about the lands of the church, hierarchs, monasteries. Simon, Metropolitan of All Russia, and with all the sacred collection, sent this first message to the Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich of All Russia with a diyak with Levash.
Speak to Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich of All Russia from Metropolitan Simon of All Russia and from the whole consecrated cathedral to the deacon Levash.
Your father, sir, Simon Metropolitan of All Russia and the archbishops and bishops and the entire consecrated cathedral say that from the first pious and holy Equal-to-the-Apostles Constantine the king and after him under the pious kings reigning in Konstantin city, saints and monasteries, cities and authorities and villages and lands shuddered. And at all the cathedrals of the holy fathers, the saint and the monastery of the lands of dryness are not forbidden. And it was not ordered by all the saints of the cathedrals of the holy fathers by the hierarch and the monastery of the immovable acquisitions of the church either to sell or give away, and it was affirmed with great oaths. It is the same in our Russian countries under your forefathers of the Grand Dukes, under the Grand Duke Vladimer and under his son Grand Duke Yaroslav, even to these places the saints and monasteries held cities and authorities and villages and lands.
And after that, Metropolitan Simon himself, with the entire consecrated cathedral, was with the Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich of All Rus'. And this list is in front of him.
From being. And buy all the land of Egypt, Joseph, for them to be glad. And the whole land was to Pharaoh and the people enslaved him from the edge of the Egyptian to the edge, except for the land of the priests, then Joseph did not buy. Pharaoh himself and the people give tribute to the priests, and I charge the priests and the yadyahu tribute, to the south Pharaoh gives them. And set the commandment to all the people of Joseph until this day on the land of Egypt: a fifth part to Pharaoh, except for the land of the priests, that is not the same for Pharaoh.
From Levgitsky book. The Lord spoke to Moses, saying: Say this to the sons of Israel: if a man sanctifies his temple, holy to the Lord, let the priest judge him between good and between evil. And as if the priest were to stigmatize, so be it. Is it possible to sanctify and redeem his temple, let him add five parts of the price of his silver, and let him be. Is it possible that the Lord will sanctify him from the cornfields of the Lord, let there be a price according to his sowing, even if he sows a thuja cornfield, like fifty pounds of barley, thirty didragmas of silver. And if he redeems his field sanctified by the Lord, let him add five parts of the price of his silver, and let it be for him. If he does not redeem the fields, and give the field to his friend, but he does not redeem her, let there be a field for the past abandonment of the Lord, a holy laudable one, like a land called a priest, let them be possessed forever and ever.
[of the same - on the field] Chapters of Levgitstia. And the authorities and the villages of the cities of their obsession and lessons, and tributes, and duties, may they always be Levvitus, like the courtyard of the Levvitian city. Their possession among the children of Israel, and the village, named in their cities, let them not sell it, nor give it away, as their possession is eternal.
From the life of the pious and Equal-to-the-Apostles great Tsar Kostyantyn and his Christ-loving and Equal-to-the-Apostles mother Elena. All this, having diligently and piously arranged the holy and blessed Empress Elena, the mother of the blessed great Tsar Konstantin, many acquisitions of cities and villages to the churches of Dada and many other countless acquisitions, and with gold and silver, and stone, and holy beads, decorate the icons and sacred honest vessels , there is a lot of gold and countless churches and wretched distribution. Holy Patriarch Macarius by many darmi mail.
[The same] Blessed Konstantin the Tsar said: Throughout the whole universe, for the sake of maintenance and fortress, the lordships of the acquisition of land, villages and grapes, and lakes, duties combined with a tax. And by divine and our command in the eastern and western, and in the southern countries and throughout the universe, even Orthodox kings and princes, and rulers under us have, rule the saint. And no worldly dignity dare to touch church duties, we conjure God and by His divine command and our command we affirm immutably and be observed even until the end of this age.
[The same] This is the whole thing, even for the sake of divine and many instructions, and by sacred and our scripture, it was approved and commanded, even to the end of this world, even throughout the universe given by the saint, church duties are not touchable and we command to remain unshakable. The same before the living God, who commanded us to reign, and before His terrible judgment, we will testify for the sake of the Divine and ours for the sake of this royal instruction by all our successor, who, according to us, wants to be the king, all the thousand-man, all the centurion and all the nobles, and all the vastest synclite of prayer of our kingdom, and to all those who in the universe are kings, and princes, and rulers over us, and to all, who are people throughout the universe, who now exist and therefore want to be all the years, not a single thing from these change or transform some for the sake of the image, even by the divine and our royal command of the sacred saints of the Roman Church and everyone, even under it, the saint is given throughout the universe, but no one dares to destroy, or touch, or in which way to annoy.
Want to learn more about these, let him read the spiritual of the pious Tsar Konstantin and the great and laudable word about him and another about him.
And if there were cities and authorities, and villages, and grapes, and lakes, and duties are not decent, and not useful to the Divine Churches, the holy fathers of the First Council would not be silent, but in every possible way they would rebuke Tsar Konstantin such a thing. And not only do not rebuke, but also holy to the Lord and praiseworthy and favorably benevolent.
And from the first pious tsar Kostyantin, and after him, under the pious tsars reigning in Konstantin city, the saints and monasteries of cities and villages, and lands kept and now keep in those, like Orthodox where reigning countries. And at all the cathedrals of the holy fathers it is not forbidden by the hierarch and monasteries to hold villages and lands, and it is not commanded by all the cathedrals of the holy fathers by the hierarch and the monastery of villages and church lands to sell or give away. And by great and terrible oaths it is affirmed.
Rule 32, 33 of the fourth council, rule 34 of the fourth council, rule of the fifth council on those who offend God’s holy churches, Justinian rule 14, 15, rule 14 of the same in Sardakia, Justinian rule 30, rule of the seventh council 12, 18. And in Spiridoniev Trimifinsky life is written and in Grigoriev the Theologian life is written, and life is written in Zlatoustago, and in Besedovnitsa is written; that the villages were ecclesiastical is revealed in the life of Saint Savin, the bishop and miracle worker.
Similarly, the monasteries had villages in former years after the great Anthony. Our venerable and great father Gelasios, the miracle-worker, had a village, and Athanasius the Athos had a village, and Theodore the Studisk had a village, and St. Simion the New Theologian in his writings shows that laurels are made from villages and from grapes. And in the Rustei of the land, the miracle-workers Anthony the Great and Theodosius of the Caves and Varlam of Novograd, and Dionysius and Demetrius of Vologda - all the villages had. So are the saints of Russia like those in Kyiv, and after them St. Peter the miracle worker and Theognost, and Alexei the miracle worker - all cities and authorities, and villages had. And Saint Alexei the Miracle-Worker Metropolitan of All Russia created many monasteries, and satisfied villages with lands and waters. And the blessed Grand Duke Vladimer and his son Grand Duke Yaroslav, as a saint and a monastery, gave towns and villages to the holy churches, even to these places of piety and love of Christ, the great princes of Russia, power and village, and land, and water, and fishing gave. And this is holy to the Lord and favorable and praiseworthy. And we will bless and praise and hold it.
The answer of Macarius, Metropolitan of All Russia, from the divine rules of the holy apostles and holy fathers of the seven councils, and local, and the individual of the existing holy fathers, and from the commandments of the holy Orthodox tsars, to the pious and Christ-loving and God-crowned Tsar, Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich, self-priest of all Russia, about immovable things given by God as an inheritance of eternal blessings.
Hear and listen, O God-loving and wise king, and having judged royally, spiritually useful and eternal, choose, and the perishable and passing world of this world is nothing, the king, believe that the essence is not transient, but virtue is one and truth remains forever.
From the most pious and Equal-to-the-Apostles Holy Tsar Constantine of Greece, and all the pious kings of Greece, and until the last pious Tsar Constantine of Greece, not a single one of them dared to move or move, or take from the holy churches and monasteries given and placed by God and the Most Pure Mother of God in the inheritance of the blessings of the eternal church name of immovable things: curtains and loans, and books, and unsellable things, river villages, fields, lands, grapes, hay, woods, boards, waters, lakes, springs, pastures and other things given to God as an inheritance of eternal blessings , fearing judgment from God and from the holy apostles and holy fathers of the seven councils and holy fathers of the locals and beings, terrible and formidable and great for the sake of the commandment. There, by the Holy Spirit, you proclaimed to the holy father: “Whoever is a king or a prince, or another, in whatever rank you may be, will steal or take from the holy churches or from the holy monasteries, placed by God in the inheritance of eternal blessings from immovable things, such according to the divine rule from God is condemned like blasphemers, but from the holy fathers under an eternal oath yes the essence.
And for this reason, all Orthodox tsars, fearing God and the holy fathers of the commandment, did not dare to move from the holy churches and from the holy monasteries of immovable things given to God as an inheritance of eternal blessings. And not only did not take, but the pious kings themselves gave holy churches and monasteries villages and grapes and other immovable things as an inheritance of eternal blessings, with writing and with great encouragement, and with the golden seals of their kingdom, fearing God and the commandment of the holy and Equal-to-the-Apostles right the pious great Tsar Konstantin, there he was enlightened and instructed by the Holy Spirit, signing the spiritual commandment with his royal hand and confirming it with terrible and magnificent oaths, putting it into the shrine of the holy apostle Peter. And there, shout to all this unshakable and immovable from all Orthodox kings and from all princes and nobles throughout the universe and to the end of the world.
And honor the blessed Pope Sylvester and after him all the saints throughout the whole universe commanded. Because of that, the blessed pope, on the crown of the main tonsure, make a sign, for the sake of blessed Peter he has his honor, not to wear a golden crown. We covered him with a white view of the bright Resurrection of the Lord, on his most sacred head we put our hands, the reins of his horse are trembling with our hands, for the honor of Blessed Peter we give him the rank of equestrian. We command the same rank and custom to everyone, even according to him, the saint always work in his belts in the likeness of our kingdom, the same, for the sake of this tonsured sign of the vrahovna hierarch's head. Let no one imagine this tonsure to be bad and dishonorable, but more than an earthly kingdom, dignity and glory, and beautifying with power. But both the city of Rome and all of Italy, and the western authorities and places, and lands, and cities of this same, even to the many times foretold blessed father of our Sylvester, the congregational pope, betraying and retreating to him and all, like him being a saint and in the whole universe, even our Orthodox Faith will hold, possession and judgment will hold for the sake of the divine and our this affirmation, we command to arrange the truth of this holy Roman church, which is subject to indwelling and to be. It is also suitable for the judge of our kingdom to place the city of the Byzantine wonderful and reddest place in the eastern countries, to build a city in your name and to set up your kingdom there, even if the priestly beginning and power, and the glory of Christian piety from the heavenly King was established, it is unrighteous to eat there power earthly king.
This is the whole thing, even for the sake of the divine many ordinances and our scripture approved and commanded by the former even until the end of this world, even throughout the universe, and given by the saint of the church lands and villages, and grapes, and lakes, and duties were counted, dahom.
And by the divine command and our royal command, I set the eastern and western, and at midnight and the southern countries, and in Judea, and in Asia, and in Thrace, in Elada, in Athracia and in Ittalia, and in various islands of our we proclaim to them the decrees of liberation and throughout the universe, even though the Orthodox princes and rulers under us possess our freedom, and having approved their will, with the power of the saint, and no worldly dignity to touch the church lands and duties, we conjure God and by our royal command we affirm immutably and observed to be even until the end of this age unwaveringly and unshakably, we command to remain.
The same before the living God, who commanded us to reign and before His terrible judgment, we will testify for the sake of this royal instruction by all our successor and those like us who want to be a king, all the thousandth and all the centurion, and all the great Romans, and all the most extensive synclites of our kingdom, and to all those who are more universal than people, who now exist and then have been for all years, and who are subject to our kingdom. And not a single thing from these should be changed or transformed for the sake of an image, even to us by royal command in the sacred holy Roman church and to everyone, even under it the saint is given throughout the universe, but no one dares to destroy or touch, or in which way to annoy.
If anyone from these, even if he does not believe to be this, without heavy and harsh, or the despiser will be damned about these eternal ones, let him be a condemnation and be guilty of eternal torment. And then have an adversary to yourself, the holy rulers of God, the apostolic Peter and Paul, in this age and in the future, in the underworld, he will be tormented, and disappear with the devil and with all the wicked.
But having confirmed our commandment of the royal writings with our own hands, we put the honest body of the ruler of the apostolic Peter with our own hands in cancer, we promised the apostle of God that we will be indestructible to observe and hedgehog who wants to be here and in the whole universe. And the Orthodox tsar, and the prince, and the nobles, and the rulers, are observed to be for the sake of our commandments, for the sake of our commandments, and to the end of the world. And to our blessed father Sylvester, the combined pope, and for his sake to all his vicar and here and in the whole universe, the saint of the Lord God and our Savior Jesus Christ, having faithfully told, eternally and safely these rewards have been betrayed, likewise now by the four patriarchal throne, to whom the limit of the honest for the sake of the apostle and a disciple of Christ: a Byzantine one, in his own name I renamed Andrew for the sake of the apostle, as if he had worked hard to bring those to the understanding of God and to bring the Orthodox churches into friendship; also to the successor of Alexandria, to Markov, and to Antioch, to Luchin the priest, to Jerusalem, to James the brother of the Lord, to whom, in our limit, we give due honor, and our successors after us until the age of time, likewise to all the churches of Christ and the blessed metropolitan, and archbishops, and others like them we ourselves give honor to the nastolnik. And our successors and greats after us, as a servant of God and a successor of Christ's apostle, do this and observe, as if you would not fall under the predicted burden and be deprived of the glory of God. But keep the tradition, as if you were a priest, fear God and His sacred church, and honor its abbots, that you will receive the grace of God in this age and in the future, and you will be sons of light.
The royal signature of the sitse: May the Godhead watch over you in many years, most holy and blessed father.
Given in Rome, on the third day of the Aprilian calands, the lord of our Flavius Konstyantin Augustus, Galican, the most honest man and the most glorious.
And for this reason, all Orthodox tsars, fearing God and the holy fathers of the commandments, and the commandments of the great Tsar Konstantin, did not dare to move from the holy churches and from the holy monasteries immovable things given to God as an inheritance of eternal blessings. And not only did not take it, but the pious kings themselves gave villages and grapes and other immovable things to the holy churches and monasteries as an inheritance of eternal blessings, with writing and with great encouragement, and with the golden seals of their kingdom. And all those Orthodox tsars until the end of their kingdom. And all those Orthodox tsars, and until the end of the Greek kingdom, and with the most holy popes and with the most holy patriarchs, and with the most holy metropolitans, and with all the saints, and with the holy fathers at all seven gatherings, they themselves were and divine rules and royal laws established both terrible and magnificent oaths of the seven collections imprinted with the royal signing. And tired of everything from no one to be immovable until the end of time. And on those who offend the holy churches and holy monasteries, and all Orthodox tsars with saints, I stand strong and guard royal and masculine. And let no one in the data of God and the Most Pure Mother of God and the great miracle worker from the sacred and given into the inheritance of eternal blessings touch or shake immovable things and to the end of the world.
It is the same in your pious and Christ-loving kingdom of Russia from your right, pious and Equal-to-the-Apostles holy great-grandfather, Grand Duke Vladimir of Kiev and All Rus' and his son, the pious Grand Duke Yaroslav, and all your holy forefathers, and up to your Christ-loving kingdom. Not a single one of them dared to tease or move, or take from the holy churches and monasteries, given and deposited by God and the Most Pure Mother of God and the great miracle worker as an inheritance of the blessings of the eternal church name of immovable things, according to the same, like other Orthodox Greek kings, fearing from Judgment of God and from the holy apostles and holy fathers of the seven local councils and individuals who are terrible and formidable and great foretold commandments and oaths, there for they exclaim to the holy fathers with the Holy Spirit: or he will take from holy churches or from holy monasteries, placed by God in the inheritance of eternal blessings from immovable things, such as, according to the divine rule from God, such blasphemers are condemned, but from the saints, the father under an eternal oath is yes.
And for this sake, all the Orthodox tsars of Greece and the Russian tsars, your forefathers, fearing from God and from the holy fathers of the commandment, did not dare to move from the holy churches and from the holy monasteries of immovable things given by God as an inheritance of eternal blessings and until today, not only from the holy churches I don’t charge God’s data, but they themselves donate immovable things to the holy churches and the monastery: villages and grapes and other immovable things, countless giving according to their royal souls as an inheritance of eternal blessings. Like your great-grandfather, the holy and equal-to-the-apostles Prince Vladimir of Kiev and all Russia, a little faith in showing God and in the holy churches is great diligence: from all his kingdom throughout the Russian land, the tenth kingdom will be given holy church and set apart by His Holiness the Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia. Tamo bo wrote in his royal will and statute:
In the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit.
Behold, Prince Volodimer, named in holy baptism Vasily, son Svyatoslavl, grandson Igorev, blessed princess Olga, received holy baptism from the Greek Tsar Konstantin and from Photius, the patriarch of the Tsar of the city. And priah from him, the right Metropolitan Michael to Kyiv, who baptize the whole Russian land with holy baptism.
According to that summer, much past, I created the Church of the Holy Mother of God of the Tithes and gave her a tithe from all her principality, as well as throughout the Russian land. And from the reign to the cathedral church from the whole prince of the court, the tenth veksha, and the tenth week of bargaining. And from houses for every summer from every flock and from every belly to the wonderful Savior and the wonderful Mother of God.
After looking at the Greek Nomocanon and finding it, it is written in it that these courts are not befitting and judge the prince, neither his boyars, nor his tyun.
And yaz, having guessed with his children and with all the princes, and with his boyars, gave those judgments to the churches of God and to his father, the metropolitan, and to all the bishops throughout the Russian land.
And for this reason, neither my children, nor my grandchildren, nor my great-grandchildren, nor my whole family until the age, nor the people of the church, nor all their courts, need to intervene.
Then I gave everything to the Church of God in all the city and in the graveyard, and in the settlements and throughout the earth, wherever Christians are.
And I order with my boyars and tyuns: do not judge church courts and do not judge tithes for our courts without metropolitan judges.
And these are the courts of the church: dissolution and mercy, catching, knocking, slying, between husband and wife about the stomach, in the tribe or in the matchmaking they will be drunk, witchcraft, indulgence, sorcery, vlakhovanie, greenery, urikania three: whore and potion, and heresy, teething or the son of the father beats, or the mother beats the daughter-in-law, or the mother-in-law's daughter-in-law, or whoever curses with foul words and attaching the father and mother, or sisters, or children, or the tribe, asses are litigated, church tatba, swindle the dead, cut the cross, or eat cod on the walls from crosses, cattle or dogs, or birds without great need to bring into the church, and otherwise what is unlike the church to eat, or two friends are beaten, one is a wife and the other has by the bosom and crushes, or someone to be caught with a four-legged, or who is praying under a barn, or in the rye, or under the grove, or by the water, or the girl will damage the child.
All those judgments were given to the churches of God before us, according to the law and according to the rule of the holy fathers, Christian kings and princes in all Christian people.
And the king, and the prince, and the boyars, and judges in those courts are not allowed to intervene.
And Iz also gave everything according to the first kings of the order and according to the ecumenical holy fathers of the seven ecumenical councils of the great saint.
The prince and the boyars, and the judges are not forgiven from the law of God to intervene in those courts.
If anyone offends this charter, such an unforgiven being from the law of God, he inherits sin and grief.
And with my tiun I order not to offend the church courts, and from the courts of Gorodets give nine parts to the prince, and a tenth to the holy church and our father, the metropolitan.
This is why from time immemorial God has entrusted the saints and their bishops - all sorts of urban and commercial measures, and weights, weights, set. From God, tacos are set to eat. And it is fitting for the metropolitan to observe everything without dirty tricks, for everything is to give him a word on the day of the great judgment, as well as about human souls.
And here are the people of the church, betray the metropolitan according to the rule: hegumen, abbess, priest, deacon, priests, deaconess and their children. And who is in the krylos: a black man, a blueberry, a marshmallow, a ponamari, a healer, a forgiver, a widow woman, a strangled person, an apprentice, a supporter, a blind man, a lame man, a monastery, a hospital, a hermitage, a stranger, and who will destroy the ports of the Chernech.
Those people of the church almshouse, the metropolitan, are in charge of courts between them, or an offense that, or an ass.
If another person will have a court or an insult with them, then a general court, and an award and judgment on the floors.
If anyone transgresses this rule, I am ruled by the holy fathers by the rule and the first Orthodox tsars, who has transgressed the rules of this - or my children, or my grandchildren, or great-grandchildren, or princes, or boyars, or in which city the governor or judge, or tiun, but if you offend those ecclesiastical judgments or take them away, may they be cursed in this age and in the next, and from the seven collections of the holy fathers of the ecumenical.
And this is about tithes. From the whole prince of the court, the tenth veksha, and from the bargaining, the tenth week, and from tribute, from faith, and from all the gathering and profit, and from the capture of the prince, and from every herd, and from every living, the tenth to the cathedral church to the bishop. The king or prince in nine parts, and the churches of the cathedral in the tenth part.
No one can lay a foundation other than this one, and let them all play on this foundation. Whoever scatters the temple of God, God scatters him, there are holy churches. And if anyone changes this holy fatherly charter, he inherits sin and grief.
If he offends the courts of the church, pay him with yourself. And before God, give the same answer at the terrible judgment before the darkness of the angel, where every case is revealed to reality, good or evil, even if no one helps anyone, but only truth and good deeds, the second death will be delivered, eternal torment and the baptism of the unsaved geon fire, eating truth in untruth. The Lord speaks of them: Their fire will not be quenched, and their worm will not die. Let us create good - eternal life and joy inexpressible. And to those who have done evil, who have judged unjustly and slyly, we are inexorable to find judgment.
If anyone breaks my order, or my sons, or my grandchildren, or my great-grandchildren, or from my family, or from the prince, or from the boyars, if they destroy my row or intervene in the courts of the metropolitan, which you gave to the metropolitan, your father, and as a bishop, according to the rule of the holy fathers and according to the first Orthodox kings, the management was judged, that he should be executed according to the law.
But if anyone has to judge, having listened to us, church courts that are devoted to the metropolitan, our father, he will stand with me before God at the terrible judgment, and may the oath of the holy fathers be on him.
So is your ancestor, the pious and Christ-loving prince, the great Andrey Yuryevich Bogolyubsky, having founded Volodimer and erected the Church of the Assumption of the Most Holy Theotokos about a single vras. And in the presence of the Most Holy Theotokos and his father Konstantin, the Metropolitan of All Russia, and following him as the Metropolitan for a century, there are many estates and settlements, and buildings, and the best villages, and tributes, and tithes in everything. And in his flocks, and the tenth bargaining in his entire kingdom for the same, like your great-grandfather, the holy and Equal-to-the-Apostles Prince Great Vladimir of Kiev and All Russia. And by the mercy of God and the Most Pure Mother of God and the great miracle-workers with prayers, and the holy tsars of Russia, your forefathers and royal parents of your saints with prayers and care and your royal salary and care, all the villages and settlements, and lands with all the land in the old days in the house of the Most Pure Mother of God and the great miracle-workers in the most holy metropolis of Ruste, and to this day we are not moved by anyone and do not harm them. And even for a while from evil people they are insulted, but by God's mercy both the Most Pure Mother of God and the great miracle workers with prayers and your royal salary and intercession in the holy churches of the barking packs are filled and never exhausted, for all this God is sanctified essence, and no one can the Church of God offend or shake, or move immovable from the church of God, because the church of God is higher and harder than the heavens, and the earth is wider, and the sea is deeper, and the sun is brighter, and no one can shake it, it is based on a stone, that is, on the faith of Christ's law .
If there are many unfaithful attempts to shake, then everything is dead, and nothing happened. And yet many others from ungodly kings in their kingdoms from holy churches and holy monasteries take nothing, and do not dare to move or shake immovable things, fearing God and the commandments of the holy fathers and the royal charters of the ancient statutory ones, but also very much in the holy churches of the barah, not only in their own countries, but also in your Russian kingdom. Once upon a time, this was, in the years of the great miracle-workers Peter and Alexei, and in the years of Michael, and Ivan, Theognost of the Russian metropolitans, but I also gave my labels to that holy metropolitan for the approval of the holy churches and the holy monastery with a great prohibition, so that they would not be offended by anyone and they were immovable until the end of their kingdom.
And until now, in the Russian metropolis of those saints, the metropolitan, seven yarlyks have been written, from them one is now written, of the great miracle worker Peter, Metropolitan of Kiev and all Russia, having the following:
The label of the Azbek of the Tsar, a tribute in the Horde to the great miracle worker Peter, Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia.
The Most High and Immortal God, by the power and majesty, and his many mercy, Azbyakov’s word to all our princes, great and middle, and lower, and strong governors, and nobles, and our prince, and glorious roads, and the prince of high and lower, and the scribe and the charter of a dzhalnik, and a teacher, and a human messenger, and a collector, and a baskak, and a passing ambassador, and our lontse, and a falconer, and a pardusnik, and all the people high and low, small and great of our kingdom in all our countries, according to in all our uluses, where our immortal God holds power by force, and our word owns. Yes, no one will offend the assembled church in Rus' and Metropolitan Peter and his people, and his church, they don’t charge anything, neither acquisitions, nor estates, nor people.
And Metropolitan Peter knows the truth and judges the right, and his people govern in the truth, no matter what. And in rozboy and red-handed, and in tatba, and in all sorts of affairs, Metropolitan Peter is in charge of one, or whom he orders. Yes, everyone repents and obeys the metropolitan, all his church clergy, according to the first from the beginning by their law and according to the first letters of our first kings, great letters and devterems, but no one intervenes in the church and the metropolitan, because everything is God's.
And whoever intervenes, and our label, our word will disobey, that is, he is guilty of God, and he will receive wrath on himself from him, and from us he will be punished by death. But the metropolitan walks in the right way, but abides and amuses himself in the right way, and with the right heart and right thought all her church governs and judges, and knows, or who will command such to do and govern, but we should not intervene in anything, nor our children , nor all our princes of our entire kingdom and all our countries, all our uluses, let no one stand up for anything church, metropolitan, neither in their cities, nor in their volosts, nor in their villages, nor in all sorts of catching them, nor in board their lands, nor their meadows, nor their forests, nor their hedges, nor their salty places, nor their vineyards, nor their mills, nor their winter quarters, nor their herds of horses, nor into all their herds of cattle. But all the acquisitions and estates of the church, and people, and all their clergy, and all their old laws from their beginning, then the metropolitan knows everything, or whom he orders.
May nothing be repaired or destroyed, or hurt by anyone. May the metropolitan remain in a quiet and meek life without any gools, and with a right heart and right thought pray to God for us and for our wives, and for our children, and for our tribe. We also instruct and favor, just as our former kings gave them labels and favored them. And we are on the same path, with the same labels favor them, but God please us, intercede.
And we are delusional about God, but we do not take what is given to God. And whoever takes God's things, and he will be guilty of God, and God's wrath will be on him. And from us will be executed death penalty Yes, seeing it, others will be in fear.
And our Baskaks, customs officers, tributaries, martyrs, scribes according to our letters will go, as our word said and fixed, so that all the metropolitan churches will be intact, all his people and all his possessions will not be hurt by anyone, like a label has. And archimandrites and abbots, and priests, and all his church clergy, let no one be beaten by anyone. Whether we receive tribute or anything else, whether tamga, plowed, pits, washed, bridges, whether it’s war, whether it’s our fishing, or we’ll always order our service from our uluses to sort out where we want to fight , but we don’t charge anything from the chosen church and from Peter the Metropolitan, and from their people, and from all his parish: they pray to God for us and watch over us and strengthen our army.
Whoever does not know even before us that by the power and will of the immortal God all live and fight, then everyone knows. And we, praying to God according to our first kings, gave letters of literacy to them in nothing, as it was before us.
So say, our word has set us on the first path, which will be our tribute, or we will throw our requests, or plow, or our ambassadors, or our feed and our horses, or carts, or the feed of our ambassadors, or our queens, or our children, and whoever is, and whoever, let them not take it up and let them not ask for anything. And what they take in, give back a third. If they are taken for a great need, but from us it will not be meek, and our eye does not look at them quietly. And what will the church people be, artisans or scribes, or stone builders, or wood, or other craftsmen, no matter what, or falconers, or catchers, no matter what kind of catch, but let no one intervene in our cause and let them not be hostile to our cause . And let our pardusnits and our catchers, and our falconers, and our coasters, let them not intervene in them and let them not take them, let them not take away their effective tools, nor take them from them. And what is their law, and in their law their churches, their monasteries, their chapels, do not harm them in any way, do not blaspheme.
And whoever teaches the faith to cheat and blaspheme, that person will not apologize in any way, and will die an evil death. And that the priests and deacons eat the same bread and live in the same house with someone - whether it’s a brother, whether it’s a son, and so along the same path is our salary. If someone did not come forward from them, if there is someone from them who does not serve the metropolitan, but lives for himself, then the name of the priests is not taken away, but he gives tribute.
And the priests and deacons and clergy of the church were granted from us according to our first letter. And they stand praying for us to God with a right heart and a right thought.
And whoever teaches with a wrong heart to pray to God for us, that sin will be on him.
And whoever the pope is a deacon, or a clerk, or a church, or other people whoever, from wherever they are, want to serve the metropolitan and pray to God for us, what the metropolitan will think about them, then the metropolitan knows.
So our word did, and I gave Metropolitan Peter this letter of strength for him, and this letter seeing and hearing, all the people and all the churches and all the monasteries, and all the clergy of the church, let them not disobey him in anything, but obey him, let them be their law, and according to the old days, as they are of old. May the Metropolitan remain with a right heart, without sorrow and without any sorrow, praying to God for us and for our kingdom. And whoever joins the church and the metropolitan, and God's wrath will be on him. And according to our great torture, he will not apologize in any way and will die an evil execution.
So the label is given, so saying, our word made, with such a fortress it approved the summer of the summer, asenago of the first month 4, old, written and given on toliih.
How much more befits you, pious and divinely crowned king, show your royal faith in God and great care for the holy churches and holy monasteries, not only immovable, but also befits you to give, like all your holy royal forefathers and parents gave God into an inheritance of eternal blessings. It is fitting for Sitsa and you, the tsar, to create kingdoms for the sake of the heavenly, I exist to the pious and Christ-loving and vele-wise tsar, the Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich of all Russia, the self-ruler, more than all the tsars in your Russian kingdom to you, the tsar, from God now exalted and venerable, sovereign tsar in everything the great Russian kingdom, I exist and know to the end the law of the gospel teachings of Christ and the holy apostles and holy fathers of the commandment, and all the divine writings lead to the end and carry on the tongue not human teaching, but the wisdom given to you from God. And for this sake, pious king, it is fitting for you, having judged, look and do useful and godly things, like other pious kings, watch and keep your royal soul and your Christ-loving kingdom from all enemies visible and invisible.
And the mercy of God and the Most Pure Mother of God, and the great miracle-workers, prayer and blessing, and may our humility be blessed with your Christ-loving kingdom forever and ever. Amen.
Likewise, all the most holy popes and the most holy ecumenical patriarchs and the most holy metropolitans, and God-loving archbishops and bishops, the apostles and altars of the saints, the apostles and honest archimarites and the God-fearing abbots and humility, mnisi, and many from those great miracle-workers, and none from those with do it or let those who have been laid down by God and given to the holy churches and the holy monastery as an inheritance of the blessings of eternal immovable things, give or sell. And at all the seven holy assemblies and local and individual holy fathers, we instruct the holy fathers with the Holy Spirit, confirming and commanding, and with terrible and terrible, and great oaths about this, we shouted and sealed the seven councils according to the grace given to us from the Holy Life-giving Spirit, and thunder like an exclamation:
If someone from the church name of holy curtains or holy loans, or holy books, or from other things, it is not appropriate to sell or give them away, placed by God in the inheritance of the blessings of eternal immovable things, river villages, fields, grapes, haymakers, forests, boards, waters, lakes, springs, pastures and other things given by God into the inheritance of eternal blessings.
If any bishop or abbot from church immovable things sell or give to the prince of that land or other nobles, it is not firm to be sold, but if sold or given away to the holy church to the bishopric or to the monastery, let him return. The bishop of that or the hegumen doing this, let him be expelled from the bishopric, and the hegumen from the monastery, as if having squandered evil, they are not taken away. If anyone else from the priestly rank exists, such a thing to do, let them pervert. Think, or the worldly people exist, let them go away. If there is a condemnation from the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, let them be arranged, even if the worm does not die and the fire does not go out, as if they resist the voice of the Lord, saying: Do not create (at home) the Father of my house bought by me.
The same and all the blessings of the Metropolitan of Russia, from the Right Reverend Metropolitan Leon of Kiev and All Russia, and to the great miracle workers Peter and Alexei and Jonah, and other saints of the Metropolitan of Russia, and to your Christ-loving kingdom, and to our humility, all the God-loving archbishops and bishops, and honest archimarites and God-fearing abbots great miracle workers: Sergius and Kiril, and Varlaam, and Pafnuty, and other holy Russian miracle workers and humility, think of holy monasteries. And no one from those who have been ordained by God and given to the holy churches and the holy monastery as an inheritance of the blessings of eternal immovable things, give or sell, according to the same divine holy rule and according to the commandment of all the holy fathers, seven councils and local and individual holy fathers.
If it doesn’t suit me more, I’m humble, if I’m a sinner and I’m not worthy of teaching the word, such is the hierarchical dignity, but according to the grace given to us from the Holy and life-giving Spirit, the metropolitan is named, then even about me, humble and unworthy, the all-generous and philanthropic God arrange with his usual philanthropy, by their own deeds, tell yourself, give and give the true word to rule over me for the sake of your most pure mother, my Mother of God. And for this reason I cannot think or think of such a terrible thing: from the immovable things given by God and the Most Pure Mother of God and the great miracle worker into the inheritance of eternal blessings from the House of the Most Pure Mother of God and the great miracle workers, give or sell such, do not wake it up. And until our last breath, and deliver us all, almighty God, and save us from such a transgression of the law and do not let it be not only with us, but also for us until the end of time, for the prayers of Your Most Pure Mother, Our Mother of God and the great miracle workers and all the saints. Amen.
And for this reason, do not be amazed at the fact that, O God-loving king, think below the caress of a thing, as if you had set and commanded the holy father with the Holy Spirit, and sealed the seven collections to us, we are wise and we keep, and until our last breath. Humans are more than esma, we swim in the many-sided sea. From now on, what will happen to us, we do not know. For not wanting to be not manifestly the whole person, but only to be afraid of the heavenly sickle, in his form Zechariah the prophet, descending from heaven: in longitude twenty fathoms, and in breadth ten fathoms, on those who offend and unrighteously judge and swear by the name of God in a lie.
And for this reason I am afraid, when I was ordained, that is, I was placed in the clergy, and then in the midst of the sacred gathering in the holy assembly of the apostles of the church before God and before all the heavenly powers, and before all the saints, and before you, the pious king, and before all the synclite, and before all the people, I swear the fate and laws, and keep our justification, our strength. And before the kings for the truth, do not be ashamed, if we need to be from the king herself or from his nobleman, what to command us to say, except for the divine rules, do not obey them, but if you abhor death, then do not listen to them. And for this reason I am afraid, I say to you, O pious tsar, and I pray to your royal majesty: stay, sovereign, and do not do such an undertaking, but God did not command you, Orthodox tsar, to do such a thing. But all His saints have been chosen by you, the Orthodox Tsar, to us, the bishop, the sacred rules have been vehemently forbidden and sealed by the seven gatherings according to the grace given to them from the Holy and life-giving Spirit.
And for this sake we pray to your royal majesty and with many tears with our foreheads, so that you, the king and sovereign, the great prince Ivan Vasilyevich of all Russia, self-druzhets, according to those divine rules from the Most Pure Mother of God and from the great miracle workers from the house of those immovable things given to God as a heritage eternal blessings, he did not order to take.
And the mercy of God and the Most Pure Mother of God and the great miracle workers, prayer and blessing, and yes, and our humility, the blessing is always with your Christ-loving kingdom for many generations and forever. Amen.
compiler: Anatoly Badanov
missionary administrator
project "Breathe with Orthodoxy"
The truce of 1503 is the biggest success of the foreign policy of the Russian state. For the first time, a large-scale liberation of Russian lands began. The principle of the unity of Rus', continuity from the Kyiv princes began to acquire its material embodiment. For the first time, a real, great victory was won in the West - over a strong enemy, over a major European power, which until recently seized Russian lands with impunity and threatened Moscow itself.
The dawn of the new, sixteenth century illuminated the glory of Russian weapons and the successes of the renewed state. The triumph on Vedrosh, the victory at Mstislavl, the liberation of the Seversk land ... The triumph of strategy and diplomacy, military and state building of Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich is the result of his policy over many decades.
The summer of 1503 came. A church council was held in Moscow. His decrees on the non-collection of fees ("bribes") for the appointment to the priesthood and on the deprivation of widowed priests of the right to church service have been preserved. It was also decided to forbid the residence of monks and nuns in the same monastery. The Council of 1503, no doubt, dealt with very important issues related to the internal structure of the Russian Church. But even more important was the question of church lands. A “Conciliar report” on this issue, sent to the Grand Duke by Metropolitan Simon, has been preserved (according to researchers, an extract from the original protocol of the cathedral), and several journalistic works of contemporaries on this topic have been preserved. Of particular importance is the “Other Word” - a monument relatively recently introduced into scientific circulation by the Soviet researcher Yu. K. Begunov. These sources in their totality make it possible to reconstruct in general terms the events connected with the discussion at the council of the issue of church land ownership.
For the consideration of the cathedral, the Grand Duke proposed a draft of a radical reform: “At the metropolitan and all the bishops and all the monasteries, the villages should be taken and everything should be connected to their own.” This meant the secularization of the main categories of church lands - their transfer to the jurisdiction of state power. In return, the Grand Duke offered "... the metropolitan and the bishops and all the monasteries from their own treasury to please and make bread from their granaries." Deprived of their own lands, hierarchs and monasteries had to receive a rugu - a kind of state salary. The feudal church was deprived of any economic independence and placed under the complete control of state power.
It is not surprising that the reform project caused a fierce controversy, in which the sons of the Grand Duke were drawn into. According to the Word of Another, the process of secularization was supported by the heir Vasily and the third son of the Grand Duke Dmitry. The second son, Yuri Ivanovich, apparently did not approve of the reform. Secularization was supported by the clerks introduced - the heads of state departments. Of the church leaders on the side of the reform were Nil Sorsky and bishops - Tver Vassian and Kolomna Nikon. Secularization was opposed by Metropolitan Simon (despite his constant fear of the Grand Duke), Archbishop Gennady of Novgorod, Bishop Nifont of Suzdal, and Abbot Serapion of the Trinity Sergius Monastery. The ideological inspirer of the opposition to the reform was Joseph, hegumen of the Volokolamsk monastery 17 .
The controversy at the council ended with the victory of Joseph and his supporters, that is, the majority of the hierarchs. Referring to church decrees and historical precedents, the council, in its response to the Grand Duke, resolutely emphasized the inviolability of the provision on the inviolability of church property: "... not sold, not given away, nor owned by anyone, never for ever and ever, and life is indestructible."
It is possible that the outcome of the debate was ultimately connected with a purely accidental, but fundamentally important fact. According to the Nikon Chronicle (later, but well informed), “the same summer (1503 - Yu. A.) the month of July on the 28th day ... the great prince Ivan Vasilyevich of all Russia began to grow weak. The illness, apparently, was sudden (as evidenced by the exact date) and very serious (otherwise the chronicler would not have written about it). The Book of Power clarifies: the Grand Duke "and you can hardly walk with your legs, we will hold from some." This means that Ivan Vasilievich lost the ability to move independently - most likely, he suffered a stroke (in today's terminology - a stroke) 18 .
The author of The Word of Another directly connects the sudden illness of the Grand Duke with the struggle for monastic lands. According to him, in another conflict between monks and black peasants over land in the village of Ilemna, the Grand Duke sided with the peasants and ordered that the Trinity elders be fined. Moreover, Ivan Vasilievich ordered the authorities of the Trinity Monastery to present all the letters to the monastery estates. Undoubtedly, it was a question of revising the ownership rights of the largest church landowner in Russia. In response to this, hegumen Serapion prepared a spectacular spectacle - he ordered the Grand Duke "with letters to be an old elder, which do not come from the cells." The decrepit hermits set off on a journey in chariots, and some on a stretcher ... But on the same night, the Grand Duke lost his arm, leg and eye. He was punished for his "blasphemy"...
A legend is one of the forms of reflection of reality. Despite the legendary coloring, the story of the "Word of another" is plausible.
The sudden illness of Ivan Vasilyevich and the stormy debate about church lands coincided in time. The illness of the head of state could have contributed to the victory of the clerical opposition at the council.
Only two hundred years later, under Peter the Great, a similar reform was carried out, but only in the 60s. 18th century the project of secularization was actually carried out.
It is difficult to say how things would have turned out in Rus' if secularization could have been carried out at the beginning of the 16th century. In the countries of Western Europe, the secularization of the first half of the 16th century. was closely associated with the Reformation and was objectively progressive in nature - it contributed to the development of bourgeois relations. In any case, one can assume that in Rus' secularization would lead to the strengthening of state power and secular tendencies in culture and ideology. But the project of secularization was not accepted by the council. This meant the victory of the conservative clerical opposition and had far-reaching consequences.
Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich suffered a political defeat - the first and last time in his life. The defeat at the council and at least a partial loss of legal capacity due to a serious, incurable illness marked the end of the real reign of the first sovereign of all Russia.
“For this path is short, we flow along it. Smoke is this life,” taught the wise Nil Sorsky. Life was coming to an end.
On September 21, Ivan Vasilievich "with his son, Grand Duke Vasily and other children" left Moscow on a long journey. They toured the monasteries. They also visited the Trinity in the Sergius Monastery, and in Pereyaslavl, and in Rostov, and in Yaroslavl, "stretching prayers everywhere." Only on November 9 did the Grand Duke's train return to Moscow. Ivan Vasilyevich was never distinguished by demonstrative, ostentatious piety, and he definitely did not like the monastic elders. A sharp change in mood and behavior is an indirect evidence of a serious illness 19 .
Like a blind father once, Ivan Vasilyevich now needed a real co-ruler. Power was slipping out of my hands. The Grand Duke from time to time still took part in the affairs. On April 18, 1505, “according to his word”, the Belozersky scribe V. G. Naumov judged the local lands. This is the last mention of the name of Ivan III in judicial acts 20 . The Grand Duke continued to be interested in stone construction, especially in his beloved Moscow Kremlin. The chronicler reports his instructions on this matter. The last one was May 21, 1505. On this day, Ivan Vasilyevich ordered to dismantle the old Archangel Cathedral and the Church of John of the Ladder “under the bells” and lay new churches.
As far as possible, he did not lose sight of his other favorite offspring - the embassy service. On February 27, 1505, the last words of Ivan Vasilyevich known to you are dated. Addressing the ambassadors of Mengli-Girey, the “great great prince” ordered to convey to the khan: “... so that he would do this for me, with me, my son Vasily would be made a direct friend and brother, and he would give him his letter of wool, and my eyes would see. But the king himself knows that every father lives for his son...” 21
In December 1504, bonfires blazed: "burning in a cage the deacon Volk Kuritsyn, and Mitya Konoplev, and Ivashka Maksimov, on December 27. And I commanded Nekras Rukovov to cut his tongue and burn him in Novgorod the Great." Archimandrite Cassian and his brother were burned, and "they burned many other heretics." For the first time (and perhaps the last) in Rus', an auto-da-fe was committed, a bloodless and radical method of fighting heretics, beloved by the Catholic Church.
Who was the initiator of this "humane" order? According to the chronicler, this is “the great prince Ivan Vasilyevich and the great prince Vasily Ivanovich of all Rus' with his father, with his Metropolitan Simon and with the bishops, and with the whole cathedral, searched the heretics, ordering their dashing death penalty to be executed.” There are now two great princes in Rus'. Which one of them had the final say? One way or another, the December bonfires are a direct, inevitable consequence of the victory of the clerical opposition at the council of 1503, those shifts in the political climate of the country that were caused by the failure of the secularization project and the serious illness of Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich.
The new council has gone far from the soft politics of 1490.... The force that saved the lives of heretics at that time has now disappeared. Burned Ivan Volk Kuritsyn - an employee of the embassy department, brother of Fyodor Kuritsyn, the actual head of this department for many years (the last time was mentioned in 1500). In the ominous flame of winter fires, the contours of a new era shone through. The time of Ivan Vasilyevich was ending, the time of Vasily Ivanovich was beginning.
"Every father lives for his son...". The spiritual diploma of the first sovereign of all Rus' was preserved only in the list, although close in time to the original. The spiritual document was drawn up in the first months of the illness of the Grand Duke - in June 1504 it was already an active document, marking the departure from the affairs of its compiler 23 .
As a father and grandfather, great-grandfather and great-great-grandfather, Ivan Vasilievich "with his belly, in his own sense" gives "a row with his son." Yuri, Dmitry, Semyon, Andrey are ordered to their "oldest brother" - they must keep him "instead of their father" and listen to him "in everything." True, Vasily must also keep "his young brother ... in honor, without offense." Vasily - Grand Duke. For the first time in the history of the house of Kalitiches, he receives Moscow as a whole, without any division into thirds, “with volosts, and with putmi, and from the camps, and from the villages, and from the yards of the Gorodtsy with everyone, and from the settlements, and with the tamga ... ". He is the sole ruler of the capital. Only he keeps permanent governors here - a large one and on the former "third" of the Serpukhov princes.
Almost all the cities and lands of the Grand Duchy of Moscow pass into the direct control of the new Grand Duke. He receives the great reign of Tver and the great reign of Novgorod, to the very ocean, "the whole Vyatka land" and "the whole land of Pskov", part of the Ryazan land - a lot in Pereyaslavl Ryazansky, in the city and in the suburb, and Old Ryazan, and Perevitsk.
What do the other brothers get? Once every few years - the right to a part of Moscow's income. Each of them the new Grand Duke annually pays one hundred rubles. Each of them is given several courtyards in the Kremlin and a couple of villages near Moscow. They also receive land in other places. Yuri - Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, Kashin, Ruzu, Bryansk and Serpeisk. Dmitry - Uglich, Khlepen, Zubtsov, Mezetsk and Opakov. Semen - Bezhetskoy Top, Kaluga, Kozelsk. Andrey - Vereya, Vyshgorod, Lubutsk and Staritsa.
So the principalities reappeared. But how they do not look like the old destinies ...
The destinies of the new formation are scattered across the face of the entire Russian land. They consist of cities, towns, volosts and villages, interspersed here and there in the state territory at a great distance from each other. They nowhere form closed, in any way interconnected territorial complexes.
The new princes "besides that ... do not intervene in anything" - the idea of the possibility of any kind of "repartition" is rejected from the very beginning. The princes “according to their lot ... do not order money to be made, but my son Vasily orders money to be made ... as it was with me,” the testator establishes.
In their city courtyards in Moscow and villages near Moscow, the princes “do not hold trades, they do not order to trade with life, they do not set up shops, they do not order guests with goods from foreigners, and from Moscow lands, and from their destinies, they do not order to put in their courtyards”: all trade in Moscow is conducted only in the gostiny yards, as was the case under Ivan Vasilyevich himself, and all trade duties go to the treasury of the Grand Duke. The princes can only trade in small "edible goods" - subject to the payment of a half-duty.
Page 27
When was the unification of the northeastern and northwestern Russian lands around Moscow completed? What task did the grand dukes face after the completion of the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow?
Under Vasily III (by 1533), with the annexation of Pskov, Smolensk, Ryazan, the unification of the lands of North-Eastern and North-Western Rus' around Moscow was completed. The main task of the sovereign was the transformation of independent lands into a single Russian state. The first nationwide institutions were created, a single army and a communication system appeared. The country was divided into districts, headed by Moscow governors.
Page 28
What is an inheritance? To whom were allotments allocated?
UTEL - a specific principality in Rus', that is, a territory formed after the division of large principalities in the period from the 12th to the 16th centuries. The inheritance was under the control of the specific prince, and formally - in the possession of the Grand Duke. Often, appanages were formed as a result of inheritance, donation, land redistribution, and even violent seizures. In connection with the formation of the Russian state, the formation of specific principalities ceased in the 16th century: the last, Uglich, was abolished in 1591. Also, the share of the representative of the princely family in the family property was called the inheritance.
Page 33. questions and tasks for working with the text of the paragraph
1. Explain the economic and political meaning of securing the exclusive right to mint coins for the Grand Duke.
Economic meaning: filling the treasury, the formation of a single internal market for the development of trade, crafts, and the economy as a whole
Political meaning: strengthening the state, autocratic power.
2. Was the unification of Rus' inevitable?
The unification of Rus' was inevitable as the liberation from the Horde, the strengthening of the central government, and economic growth took place.
3. Describe the role of the sovereign's court in governing the country.
The role of the sovereign's court in governing the country was great. This is the ruling elite of Moscow society, associates and like-minded people of the Grand Duke, who were appointed governors, governors, butlers, ambassadors, i.e. were the purveyors of his policy.
4. What was the source of income of the sovereign governors? Why was this form of receiving funds called "feeding"?
The source of income for the sovereign governors was the support of the local population with the money and products of this governor and his court.
This form of receiving funds was called "feeding" because the charter of the Grand Duke determined the size of the maintenance of the governor - "feed".
5. Who formed a single army in the first third of the 16th century? Explain the origin of the names of these estates.
A single army in the first third of the 16th century was formed from local nobles. The origin of the name “local” from the word “to use”, the estate is a piece of state land with peasants, given to a specific person on the condition that he performs military service. These persons were palace servants, and even serfs, the younger members of noble families.
Page 33. Working with the map
Show on the map the territorial acquisitions of Basil III listed in the paragraph.
Territorial acquisitions of Vasily III: Pskov land, Chernigov-Seversky lands, Smolensk, Ryazan principality, Belgorod.
Page 33. Studying documents
What qualities of the character of Vasily III can be judged from this fragment of the letter?
This fragment of the letter allows us to judge such qualities of the character of Vasily III as caring, fidelity, responsibility.
Page 34. Studying documents
2. Why was the veche bell removed from the city?
The veche bell was removed from the city because it called the inhabitants of Pskov to Veche and symbolized the independence of the Pskovites.
Page 34. Think, compare, reflect
2. Explain the meaning of the phrase: “At the church council, Ivan III proposed “to the metropolitan, and all the lords, and all the monasteries of the village to take”, and in return to provide them “from his treasury with money ... and bread.”
The meaning of the phrase is that in this way the sovereign limited the influence and power of the church, subordinating it to his power, while replenishing the treasury.
4. Give examples showing the significance of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow.
Examples showing the importance of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow: the strengthening of the central government, the development of the economy, the cessation of internecine wars, the security of the inhabitants of the state, the development of the lands that became part of the Russian state.
When the Russian Church began to gather councils, what problems did they solve, what kind of relationship did they have with the authorities? Candidate of Historical Sciences Fyodor Gayda tells about the history of the conciliar movement in Russia.
On the illustration: S. Ivanov. "Zemsky Cathedral"
Under the wing of Byzantium
The Russian Church until the middle of the 15th century was an integral part of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, and therefore the Russian metropolitans took part in its councils. The history of Byzantine church councils is by no means limited to the famous seven Ecumenical Councils. And after the 8th century, questions of dogma and church law were decided at the councils. Shortly after the first Baptism of Rus', under Patriarch Photius, a Council (879-880) was held, at which the Filioque was condemned - a Latin insertion into the Creed, according to which the Holy Spirit proceeds not only from the Father (as in the original text of the symbol), but also from the Son. In Byzantium, he was always revered as the Eighth Ecumenical Council. In the 11th-13th centuries, issues of Orthodox liturgy were developed at the Councils of Constantinople. The councils of 1341-1351 were marked by the victory of the hesychast doctrine (theology and asceticism aimed at the knowledge of God and deification), with which the spiritual revival of Rus' in the 14th century was also associated.
In Rus', councils were also convened - to resolve local judicial and disciplinary issues. In a number of cases, when the issue could not be resolved in Constantinople, the Metropolitan of Kyiv was elected at a council of local bishops. So, at the first council of the Russian Church, of which evidence remains, in 1051, Metropolitan Hilarion, the author of the famous “Sermon on Law and Grace,” was elected to the All-Russian cathedra. In 1147, also at the cathedral, Metropolitan Kliment Smolyatich, who was distinguished by his education, was elected. In 1273 or 1274, on the initiative of Metropolitan Kirill III of Kyiv, a council of Russian bishops was held, at which, after the Batu pogrom, it was decided to strengthen church discipline and eradicate pagan customs.
Russian symphony
The acceptance by Constantinople of a union with papal Rome led to the proclamation of the autocephaly of the Russian Church. In 1448, at a council in Moscow, the Ryazan Bishop Jonah was elected metropolitan. From that time on, Moscow metropolitans were elected by the council of the Russian Church, which met on the initiative of the Grand Duke or Tsar, who also approved the conciliar decision. A similar tradition existed in Byzantium since the time of Emperor Constantine the Great. However, the great influence of state power on the decisions of the councils did not mean that it was always decisive. In 1490, church hierarchs succeeded in holding a council, at which heretics were condemned - "Judaizers" who denied the divinity of Jesus Christ and the holiness of icons, but who strengthened themselves at court and had indirect support from the Grand Duke Ivan III. The Sovereign of All Rus' did not go against Archbishop Gennady of Novgorod and Abbot Joseph Volotsky. At the Council of 1503, the Grand Duke tried to raise the issue of the secularization of church lands and was again forced to yield to the conciliar opinion of the Church.
Of great importance for the whole of Russian history was the cathedral of 1551, nicknamed Stoglav for the collection of decisions he adopted from 100 chapters. The true initiator of the council was Metropolitan Macarius of Moscow (1542-1563). It was he who crowned the first Russian Tsar - Ivan IV. Following the example of church councils, in 1549 the “Council of Reconciliation” was convened - the first Zemsky Sobor, a government body designed to correct the disorganizations of the Russian state. In zemstvo sobors, which made nationwide decisions, along with representatives different groups The population also took part in the clergy. The reforms of the Chosen Rada, carried out at the beginning of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, were blessed by Metropolitan Macarius. It was under him that at the councils of 1547 and 1549 the All-Russian Council of Saints was approved, Alexander Nevsky, Metropolitan Jonah, Pafnuty Borovsky, Alexander Svirsky, Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky, Peter and Fevronia of Murom were canonized. Church law was also unified at Stoglav, clergy were removed from the jurisdiction of the secular court. The canons of church architecture and icon painting were determined. Drunkenness, gambling, buffoonery were condemned. The growth of church land ownership was put under state control: the land was the main source of income for service people, the reduction of the land fund undermined the combat effectiveness of the troops. The decision was made in the interests of the state - and the Church agreed with this. Subsequently, the councils of 1573, 1580 and 1584 continued this policy.
After the death of Metropolitan Macarius, the time of the oprichnina came. Violence also touched the Church, the grandson of Ivan III did not stop before this. In 1568, on the orders of the tsar, the cathedral illegally removed from the all-Russian cathedra St. Metropolitan Philip, who publicly condemned the oprichnina terror (however, already at the end of the 16th century, the veneration of the saint began, culminating in the official glorification in 1652, which actually canceled the decision of the council of 1568). In 1572, the cathedral allowed the tsar to enter into a fourth marriage (the next four marriages were already left without a wedding - here even the formidable tsar could not have been blessed).
After the death of Ivan the Terrible, both the state and the Church needed mutual support. In 1589, the “Council of the Russian and Greek Kingdoms,” composed of Russian bishops, with the participation of Patriarch Jeremiah II of Constantinople (the status of the Russian primate could be changed only with the consent of Ecumenical Orthodoxy), established a patriarchate in Russia and elevated Metropolitan Job of Moscow to the throne. In the speech of Patriarch Jeremiah, who blessed the creation of a new patriarchal cathedra, at the Moscow Cathedral, it was said about the "great Russian kingdom, the Third Rome." The Councils of Constantinople in 1590 and 1593 approved this decision. The Patriarchs of Moscow and All Rus', Job and Hermogenes, became a real stronghold of statehood during the Time of Troubles, especially the interregnums of 1598 and 1610-1613, when the convocation of councils was impossible due to circumstances.
In the 17th century, church councils were convened most often - at that time more than three dozen of them were assembled. The clergy also played an active role at Zemsky Sobors. The main issue was church reforms, which were designed to raise the morality and piety of the people, to prevent spiritual impoverishment. The cathedrals became the most important instrument of reforms of Patriarch Nikon (1652-1666). However, the court case of the Patriarch himself and the Great Sovereign Nikon (Nikon's official title is ed. ) was considered conciliarly. In the Great Moscow Cathedral of 1666-1667, along with 17 Russian bishops, the patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch, representatives of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem, 12 Eastern hierarchs in total, as well as archimandrites, abbots, priests and monks took part. Nikon was removed from the patriarchate for interference in state affairs and unauthorized abandonment of the cathedral city, after which the council nominated three candidates for the patriarchal throne, leaving the final choice to the king. The Great Moscow Cathedral confirmed the theory of a symphony of spiritual and secular authorities, according to which they combined their efforts, but did not interfere in each other's sphere of competence. The council confirmed the correctness of Nikon's reforms, condemned the "old rites", introduced regular diocesan councils of the clergy, and also forbade the appointment of illiterate priests.
substitution
After 1698, church councils in Russia ceased to meet: this was due both to the desire of Tsar Peter Alekseevich to strengthen his sole power, and to his course of cultural Westernization, which often met with dissatisfaction among the clergy. On January 25, 1721, a Manifesto was issued on the establishment of the Most Holy Governing Synod (from Greek - “cathedral”), headed by the chief prosecutor, which included bishops, abbots of monasteries and representatives of the white clergy (initially it was determined that their number should correspond to 12). The Manifesto stated that the Synod "is the Spiritual Council Government, which, according to the following Regulations, has all sorts of Spiritual affairs in the All-Russian Church to manage ...". The Synod was recognized by the Eastern Patriarchs as an equal. Thus, the Synod had a patriarchal status and therefore was called the Most Holy, at the same time replacing the church council. In 1722, the position of chief prosecutor was introduced in the Synod - "the eye of the sovereign and the attorney on state affairs in the Synod." The chief prosecutor, being a secular official, in charge of the office of the Synod and following its regulations, was not a member of it. However, the importance of the chief prosecutor gradually grew and especially intensified in the 19th century, as the Russian Church turned into an “institution of the Orthodox confession”, when the chief prosecutor actually became the head of the Synod.
Cathedral of 1917-1918 - an example of Russian catholicity
Already at that time, voices were heard about the need to resume the living conciliar practice of the Church. At the beginning of the 20th century, in the circumstances of growing anti-clericalism and religious tolerance proclaimed in 1905, the issue of convening a Local Council became the most urgent. The "dominant Church" in the new situation turned out to be the only confession subordinate to the state. In 1906, the Pre-Council Presence was opened, which consisted of bishops, priests and professors of theological academies and was supposed to prepare materials for the upcoming council within several months. The presence spoke in favor of the regular convocation of councils and the election of members of the Synod by them. However, due to fear of political criticism of the authorities, the council was never convened. In 1912, instead of it, the Pre-Council Conference was created, which lasted until the revolution.
It was only after the February Revolution of 1917 that a real opportunity arose to convene a Local Council. It opened on the feast of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary (August 15, old style) in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. The difference of this cathedral was that the laity, who made up more than half of its members, took an active part in its work. The Council restored the Patriarchate and elected by lot to the patriarchal throne its chairman, Metropolitan Tikhon of Moscow. Determinations were adopted on the powers and procedure for the formation of higher church bodies, diocesan administration, parishes, monasteries and monastics. The need to establish a new legal status of the Church in the state was determined: she called for recognition of freedom in the internal dispensation and, at the same time, a primacy among other confessions; the head of state had to be Orthodox. It was decided to involve women in the church service as elders, missionaries, and psalm readers. The Council of 1917-1918 strengthened the Church at the beginning of the era of persecution and became a real example of the catholic dispensation of the Church. It was decided to convene the next council in 1921, but this proved impossible under Soviet rule.
The meeting of the Local Council of 917-1918, at which, after a break of more than two hundred years in the Russian Church, a patriarch was elected. They became the Metropolitan of Moscow Tikhon (Bellavin)- in the photo in the center
There were robber cathedrals in Russia
On the contrary, with the active support of the Bolsheviks, their "local councils" in 1923 and 1925 were held by the Renovationist schismatics, who tried to put the Church under their control. Not having received the support of the church people and most of the episcopate, the Renovationists ultimately lost the help of the authorities. An attempt to fabricate a "Soviet heresy" ingloriously failed.
Only in September 1943, at the height of the Great Patriotic War, when the ideology of the regime evolved sharply in a patriotic direction, for the first time after 1918, it became possible to convene a council, which was attended by 19 bishops (some of them had left the camps shortly before). The Holy Synod was restored and, on a non-alternative basis, Metropolitan Sergius (Stragorodsky) of Moscow was elected patriarch (after a break of 18 years). Subsequently, alternative election was introduced only at the 1990 council, and the candidacies of patriarchs, like all decisions made at councils, were agreed with the Soviet leadership. However, having tested the faith of the Church for strength during the years of bloody persecution, the communist state never tried to break its core - the dogma.
Under the control of the councils
In January - February 1945, after the death of Patriarch Sergius, the Local Council was convened. It was attended by priests and laity, but only bishops were entitled to vote. Delegations from many local Orthodox churches also arrived at the cathedral. Metropolitan Alexy (Simansky) of Leningrad was elected patriarch.
The Council of Bishops in 1961 took place under the conditions of Khrushchev’s persecution, when the Church, under pressure from the authorities, was forced to make a decision to remove priests from administrative and economic duties in the parish and assign them to a special parish “executive body” (the authorities thus counted on weakening the influence of the clergy; decision this was abolished by the 1988 council). The Council also passed a decision on the entry of the Russian Church into the "World Council of Churches", which was explained by the task of preaching Orthodoxy in the Protestant world. The authorities considered the Church as one of the possible levers of their "peace-loving" foreign policy, but did not take into account the opposite effect: the international position of the Church itself was strengthened, which often made it possible to defend its truth before an atheistic state.
The Local Council of 1971 elected Metropolitan Pimen (Izvekov) of Krutitsy as Patriarch. This council also canceled the oaths of the Great Moscow Cathedral of 1666-1667 on the "old rites", recognizing the possibility of their use (but the condemnation for participation in the schism was not removed from the Old Believers).
Again freedom
The Local Council of 1988, timed to coincide with the 1000th anniversary of the Baptism of Rus', marked the spiritual revival of the country, where the Church had ceased to be persecuted, and atheistic control had sharply weakened. The cathedral canonized many saints: Dmitry Donskoy, Andrei Rublev, Maxim the Greek, Metropolitan Macarius of Moscow, Xenia of Petersburg, Ambrose of Optina, Theophan the Recluse, Ignatius Brianchaninov.
The Council of Bishops in 1989 glorified Patriarch Tikhon as a saint. Convened after the death of Patriarch Pimen in 1990, the Local Council for the first time since 1918 was given the opportunity to make a decision free from state interference on the new primate of the Russian Church. By secret ballot, the cathedral elected the patriarch from three candidates previously nominated by the Council of Bishops: Metropolitan Alexy (Ridiger) of Leningrad, Filaret (Denisenko) of Kyiv, and Vladimir (Sabodan) of Rostov. The then authorities preferred to see the most loyal figure of Metropolitan Filaret on the patriarchal throne, but did not insist. Another sign of the end of the communist era was the canonization of the righteous John of Kronstadt, which took place at the cathedral.
Under Patriarch Alexy II (1990-2008), bishops' councils met in 1990, 1992, 1994, 1997, 2000, 2004 and 2008. In the 1990s, the main problem was the Ukrainian church schism, headed by Filaret, who never became a patriarch in Moscow. The Council of 2000 canonized 1,071 saints in the host of New Martyrs and Confessors of Russia, including Emperor Nicholas II and his family. The Fundamentals of the Social Concept of the Russian Church were adopted, which clearly defined the principles of church-state relations and, in particular, the duty of a Christian to peacefully oppose any atheistic policy.
On January 27, 2009, at the Local Council, Metropolitan Kirill of Smolensk and Kaliningrad was elected Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus'.
The more significant the event in the eyes of contemporaries, the more likely it is to be reflected in historical sources. At the turn of the XV and XVI centuries. Moscow plunged into disputes about the way of monastic life.
Ivan III not only participated in the dispute, but also found himself at the center of it. Thanks to the abundance of sources, we have a rare opportunity to penetrate into his mental laboratory, to catch moods, to study in detail the relationship between secular and spiritual authorities. Of particular importance are the materials of the cathedral of 1503.
The Council began its activities with the fact that on September 1, 1503, it approved two sentences. After the report to the sovereign, the hierarchs, “having searched for themselves” (having studied the case), “put” the widowed priests not to serve. The verdict did not go beyond the church routine. For the sake of maintaining morality, widowed priests were forbidden to serve. At the same time, the cathedral referred to the excesses of widowers who kept concubines. The verdict forbade the residence of monks and nuns in the same monastery, etc. The initiative for the first verdict came from the metropolitan and the hierarchs, the second verdict, apparently, from Ivan III.
The sovereign and his son, having "spoke" with the metropolitan and the cathedral, "lay me down and strengthened" the verdict on duties. What significance the authorities attached to the verdict is evident from the fact that Ivan III sealed it with his seal, the metropolitan and the bishops put their hands on it.
Simony has long been the true plague of the church. At times, Russian metropolitans tried to limit the evil that flowed from the sale of church positions. Following Byzantine laws, they limited the amount of duties for delivery. But these measures did not reach the goal. The hierarchs tenaciously held on to the orders consecrated by the Byzantine church and brought them a solid income. Freethinkers like the Pskov abbot Zacharias sharply criticized simony. Zechariah was punished as a heretic. Nevertheless, Ivan III, taking up the cleansing of the church, embarked on the path indicated by the "heretics". The law imposed on the hierarchs by secular authorities was one of the most radical laws in the history of the Russian Church. The Council solemnly proclaimed the immediate abolition of all and all duties for appointment to any church position. Officials were not supposed to take duties and commemoration, the printer and the deacon were forbidden to take a bribe "from the seal and from the signature" of the charter. Both bribes and "all sorts of gifts" were abolished. For violation of the law, not only the bishop, but also the one who gave the bribe, were "ejected" from the dignity.
The law on duties was morally impeccable, but it was in conflict with the age-old practice of the universal Orthodox Church. The verdict symbolized the rejection of the traditional focus on Byzantine rules and laws, from the point of view of which the abolition of duties was an illegal matter. The conciliar decree opened the door for secular authorities to interfere in the internal affairs of the church. The procedure for removing hierarchs was extremely simplified. The dependence of the clergy on the monarch increased.
After the approval of the verdict on duties, the activities of the cathedral turned into a new direction. Elder Nil Sorsky, with the blessing of Ivan III, raised the question of whether it is worthy for monasteries to own "villages" (estates). Neil's speech was seen as a kind of non-possessive manifesto. A few years before the cathedral, Ivan III took away a significant part of his estates from the Novgorod Sophia House. This fact is briefly mentioned in the unofficial Pskov chronicle. But neither the Moscow nor the Novgorod chronicles said a word about him. In the eyes of the archbishop of Novgorod and the higher hierarchs of Moscow, the attempt on church property was sacrilege, and they did not want to touch on a topic that was painful for them. The Pskov chronicle says that Ivan III undertook secularization "with the blessing of Metropolitan Simon". It can hardly be doubted that the consent of the head of the church was forced.
These observations explain why the Moscow sources are silent about the projects of secularization at the cathedral. In essence, in 1503 the authorities tried to extend the Novgorod experience to Moscow lands, which led to a sharp conflict between the monarch and the clergy.
The discussion of plans for the alienation of church lands in 1503 did not lead to concrete results. The members of the council dispersed without making any decision. The topic of secularization was consigned to oblivion for several decades. The secular authorities did not want to remember their failure, and the churchmen, outraged by the criminal encroachment on their property, were interested in consigning the incident to oblivion. Only after the death of Vasily III, the previously forbidden topic began to be widely discussed by publicists. Monuments about the cathedral appeared during the lifetime of a generation that did not know Nil Sorsky and Iosif Sanin and drew information about them from the lips of their closest students.
Inaccuracies and contradictions in the memories are quite natural. Neither in the annals of the council, nor in the council's judgments, is there even a hint of a discussion about church lands. All data about the speech of Nil Sorsky and secularization projects are contained in later journalistic writings. Explaining this paradox, a number of researchers began to consider the news about the action of non-possessors in 1503 as completely unreliable. It is believed that the publicists of the middle of the XVI century. constructed information about the clash of non-possessors and osiflyans at the cathedral of 1503.
The scribes did not have to construct the events of the past. It was enough for them to remember them.
The weakness of the hypothesis about the falsity of the cathedral materials lies in the fact that it does not at all explain the motives for the mystification, in which not one, but many scribes and theologians participated, who worked at different times and belonged to different areas of church thought. Either side would hasten to expose the other if the latter allowed a gross falsification.
THE RUSSIAN STATE IN THE FIRST THIRD OF THE XVI CENTURY
Questions in the text of the paragraph
When was the unification of the northeastern and northwestern Russian lands around Moscow completed? What task did the grand dukes face after the completion of the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow?
Under Vasily III, with the annexation of Pskov (1510), Smolensk (1514), Ryazan (1521), Belgorod (1523), the unification of the lands of North-Eastern and North-Western Rus' around Moscow was completed. The main task of the sovereign was the transformation of the once independent lands into a single Russian state. The first national institutions were created, a single army appeared - the noble local militia, a communication system. The country was divided into districts, headed by Moscow governors.
What is an inheritance? To whom were allotments allocated?
An appanage is a part of a grand principality that was owned and controlled by a member of the grand ducal family. Also, the share of the representative of the princely family in the family property was called the inheritance. Despite the fact that the inheritance was under the control of the specific prince, it belonged to the Grand Duke. Often, appanages were formed as a result of inheritance, donation, land redistribution, and even violent seizures. In connection with the creation of the Russian state, the formation of specific principalities ceased: the last, Uglich, was abolished in 1591.
Questions and tasks for working with the text of the paragraph
1. Explain the economic and political meaning of securing the exclusive right to mint coins for the Grand Duke.
The grand ducal monopoly on the right to mint coins made it possible to streamline the commodity-money turnover, which had a positive effect on the development of trade. Accordingly, trade brought income to the state treasury. In addition, at that time there were no paper substitutes for money, and therefore, it was not required to have security for the money supply in circulation - the coins themselves were minted from precious metals and were of independent value. This means that the sovereign's ability to implement his own plans that require funding was limited only by the amount of precious metals mined. At any moment, the sovereign could give an order to put into circulation as many coins as needed. This gave the sovereign a certain freedom in decision-making. There was also a political meaning in the right to mint coins. Thus, the sovereign demonstrated the supremacy of the supreme power and acted in the international political arena as an equal ruler.
2. Was the unification of Rus' inevitable?
Of course, the unification of Rus' was not inevitable. It cannot be said that the unification took place without wars, blood, betrayal. Their outcome is impossible to predict. And only the desire of the rulers of the state and the people to unite made it possible to overcome all difficulties and create a single Russian state.
3. Describe the role of the sovereign's court in governing the country.
The Sovereign Court is the ruling elite of Moscow society. It included representatives of the old boyar families, as well as princes and their boyars who had transferred to the Moscow service. From the members of the sovereign's court, governors, governors, butlers, ambassadors, their assistants and subordinates were appointed; they also served in the court positions of crouching, bedding, sleeping bags. Less noble servants of the great sovereign guarded the palace, participated in court ceremonies, made up the retinue of the ruler during his departures, and were part of the sovereign's regiment - the main part of the Moscow army. In fact, the sovereign's court included the closest associates and assistants of the sovereign, who carried out his will and decisions in all Russian lands and represented the interests of the sovereign abroad.
4. What was the source of income of the sovereign governors? Why was this form of receiving funds called "feeding"?
The source of income for the sovereign governors and their servants was money and food provided by the population of the territory controlled by the governor. This system was called "feeding", because indeed, the governor lived on the funds that people brought him. Moreover, the amount of content - "feed" - was determined and regulated by charter letters.
5. From whom in the first third of the XVI century. formed a single army? Explain the origin of the names of these estates.
A single army at the beginning of the 16th century consisted of the equestrian noble local militia, the "city regiments" and the "farming rati". The local army was the basis of the Russian army and constituted the main branch of the army - the cavalry. The composition of the local army included landed nobles, people who were in the service of the sovereign. For service to the landlord was given a land allotment and a monetary allowance. For this, the landowner had to appear himself at the call of the sovereign, and also bring his people - from every 100 four (about 50 acres) of land, one warrior “on a horse and in full armor” was to go on a campaign, and on a long trip - "about two horses." "City regiments" were recruited from the townspeople, and "farm army" - from the rural population. Mercenary detachments were also an integral part of the army - at that time, “serving Tatar princes”, “Horde princes”, Lithuanian princes with their combatants carried out military service on a contractual basis.
By the second half of the 16th century, foot and equestrian city Cossacks, archery regiments and artillery "outfit" began to appear in the Russian army. Archers were recruited from free people. For their service, they received a salary (irregularly) and plots of land near cities, for which they were obliged to serve for life and hereditarily. The archers lived in special settlements, were engaged in trade and crafts. The archers were trained in formation and firing from the squeaker. Streltsy were the first permanent, but not yet regular, army in Rus'. The Streltsy army was the core of the infantry in wars.
The artillery "outfit" in the 16th century stood out as an independent branch of the military. The government encouraged service in the attire of gunners and tinkers with the necessary knowledge and skill. Artillery was divided into fortress, designed to protect cities, siege - wall and field artillery with medium and light guns.
Working with the map
Show on the map the territorial acquisitions of Basil III listed in the paragraph.
Consider the map on page 29 of the textbook
The capitals of the lands annexed to Russia during the reign of Vasily III are underlined on the map with blue lines. This:
- Pskov land in 1510
- Smolensk land in 1514
- Pereyaslavl-Ryazanskaya in 1521
- Belgorod land in 1523.
We study documents
What are the qualities of the character of VasilyIII can be judged by this fragment of the letter?
From this fragment of the letter, we can conclude that Vasily III was a loving and caring husband and father.
2. Why was the veche bell removed from the city?
Vasily III, in bringing Pskov to obedience, followed the example of Ivan III in his struggle with Novgorod. In the same way as in Novgorod, as a sign that there will never be veche traditions in Pskov again, the veche bell was taken out of the city.
Thinking, comparing, reflecting
1. Using the text of the paragraph and the Internet, draw up in electronic form (or in a notebook) a scheme for governing the Russian state in the first third of the 16th century.
2. Explain the meaning of the phrase: “At the church council, Ivan III proposed “from the metropolitan, and from all the lords, and from all the monasteries of the village, poimati”, and in return to provide them “from his treasury with money ... and bread.”
The phrase means that Ivan III proposed to seize its property and lands from the Church and transfer them to state control. To which he received the answer that the ancestors of Ivan III endowed the Russian Orthodox Church with lands, and all the acquisitions and accumulations of the church are God's accumulations.
3. Compare the Russian estate and the European fief according to the following characteristics: a) who endowed; b) for what they gave; c) the right of disposal (inheritance, sale, exchange, etc.); d) right of withdrawal. Present the results in a notebook in the form of a table.
| Characteristic | Russian estate | European fief |
| Who endowed | Sovereign | Senior |
| For what they gave | For military, and later any public service. | It was allocated only to nobles on the terms of military, administrative or court service as a vassal in favor of the lord |
| Right of disposal | The landowner has the right to transfer the estate by inheritance if the son comes to the service instead of the father. Sale and exchange of the estate is not allowed. |
The right of the vassal to use the feud remained with him only on condition that the vassal served in favor of the lord. The feud could be the property of the feudal lord, but could only be in use. The feud could be inherited. |
| Right of withdrawal | It is withdrawn if the landowner ceases his service and does not transfer the service to his son. Partially withdrawn if the landowner dies in the service - the widow remains part of the estate. |
If the vassal ceased to fulfill his obligations, the lord had the right to take away the fief. |
4. Give examples showing the significance of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow.
A single Russian state was formed, strife practically ceased, the economy and commodity-money relations began to develop, laws uniform for all lands were adopted, a single army was created, and a centralized control system was formed. The formation of a unified Russian state was of great positive significance both for economic development included in its composition of the land, and to protect them from attacks by neighbors.
Possible questions in the lesson
What are the prerequisites for the formation of a unified Russian state
Spiritual
- Common historical roots of peoples, ancient Russian statehood.
- The spiritual and cultural unity of the people in the conditions of fragmentation was preserved on the basis of a single faith - Orthodoxy.
- One Church supported the unification of the country.
- The growth of the national self-consciousness of the Russian people, awareness of the importance of spiritual and cultural unity.
Socio-economic
- The revival and development of the economic life of the country (increasing the productivity of agriculture, strengthening the commercial nature of handicrafts, the growth of cities and trade).
- Stability and order, strong power were necessary to strengthen the economic, commercial foundations of the country, its development, which was supported by almost all social groups.
- The growing dependence of peasants on large landowners caused resistance, which could be restrained by centralized power. At the same time, a strong government could also protect the peasants from the arbitrariness of the Horde and landowners.
- The boyars and nobles were interested in preserving their possessions and securing the dependence of the peasants.
Political (internal and external)
- The need to eliminate the consequences of the Horde yoke.
- Strengthening and expansion of the power of the Moscow principality.
- Union of the Orthodox Church and the Catholic Western Church, signed by the Byzantine-Constantinople Patriarch (Russia is the only Orthodox state).
- An external threat to the borders of Russian lands (Lithuania, the Livonian Order, the Commonwealth, Sweden, etc.) forced them to look for ways to unite all forces and resources.
What did the rulers need to do to centralize the state?
To centralize the state, the rulers had to bring the state's land into submission, appoint their deputies, create a system of centralized administration, create uniform laws, form a strong army, ensure order and obedience of the population, streamline commodity-money relations.
Memorizing new words
Boyar Duma- the highest deliberative body under the sovereign, which included "duma ranks" - boyars, okolnichy, duma nobles. Volost is the lowest administrative-territorial unit in Russia. Sovereign Court - an institution of social organization of landowners in Russia. Appeared at the end of the XII century. on the basis of the princely squad.
nobles- in the specific period - the service people of the prince and the boyars, who replaced the combatants; in the conditions of a single Russian state - a privileged service class, which received an estate from the sovereign for the period of service.
"Children of the boyars"- provincial nobles who carried out compulsory service and received estates for it from the Grand Duke.
Feeding- the system of maintenance of officials at the expense of the local population, which provided them with “food” in cash or in kind (bread, meat, fish, oats, etc.) for the duration of their service.
Viceroy- an official that the Grand Duke put at the head of the county; was in charge of the court, levied fines and court fees in favor of the state.
Orders- Bodies of central government in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries. (Ambassadorial, Local, Zemsky, Petition, Treasury, etc.). They had a predominantly judicial function. Some of them controlled specific territories (order of the Kazan Palace, Siberian order, Novgorod couple, etc.).
Mill- an administrative-territorial unit that occupied an intermediate position between a county and a volost; two or three camps made up the county.
county- the largest territorial unit in the united Russian state, created under Vasily III; in turn, divided into camps and volosts
The two armies are preparing for battle. Miniature from "The Tale of the Battle of Mamaev". 17th century list The British LibraryThe 14th century in the history of Russia was a time of change. This was the period when the Russian lands began to recover from the terrible consequences of the Batu invasion, the yoke was finally established as a system for subordinating the princes to the power of the khans of the Golden Horde. Gradually, the most important issue was the unification of the specific principalities and the creation of a centralized state that could free itself from Tatar rule and win sovereignty.
Several state formations, intensified in the period after the campaigns of Batu. The old cities - Vladimir, Suzdal, Kiev or Vladimir-Volynsky - could not recover from ruin and fell into decay, new centers of power arose on their periphery, between which the struggle for a great reign flared up.
Among them, several state formations stood out (there were many more contenders), the victory of each of which would mean the emergence of a peculiar, unlike other states. It can be said that at the beginning of the 14th century, the Russian principalities were at a crossroads, from which several roads diverged - possible paths for the development of Russia.
Novgorod land
The beating of the inhabitants of Ryazan by Batu Khan in 1237. Miniature from the Obverse chronicle. Mid 16th century RIA News" Reasons for strengthening. During the Mongol invasion, Novgorod escaped ruin: Batu's cavalry did not reach the city for less than a hundred kilometers. According to various historians, either the spring thaw, or the lack of forage for horses, or the general fatigue of the Mongol army affected.
Since ancient times, Novgorod has been a crossroads of trade routes and the most important center of transit trade between Northern Europe, the Baltic States, the Russian lands, the Byzantine Empire and the countries of the East. The cold snap that began in the 13th-14th centuries caused a sharp reduction in agricultural productivity in Rus' and in Europe, but Novgorod only intensified from this
by increasing the demand for bread in the Baltic markets.
Novgorod land until the final annexation to Moscow was the largest of the Russian principalities, covering vast areas
from the Baltic Sea to the Urals and from Torzhok to the Arctic Ocean. These lands were rich natural resources- furs, salt, wax. According to archaeological and historical data, Novgorod in the XIII
and XIV century was the largest city in Rus'.
territorial limits. Novgorod Rus is presented as a "colonial empire", the main direction of expansion of which is the development of the North, the Urals and Siberia.
Ethnic composition. Representatives of the North Russian people
and numerous Finno-Ugric tribes (Chud, Vesy, Korela, Voguls, Ostyaks, Permyaks, Zyryans, etc.), which are in a state of dependence
from Novgorod and obliged to pay yasak to the state treasury - a tax in kind, mainly furs.
social structure. The raw material nature of Novgorod's exports was the reason for the strong position of the boyars. At the same time, traditionally, the basis of Novgorod society was a rather broad middle class: the living and the people were landowners who had less capital and less influence than the boyars, who were often engaged in trade and usury; merchants, the largest of whom were members of the Ivanovo Sto, the highest guild of Novgorod merchants; artisans; natives - people of humble origin, who owned their own land allotment. Novgorod merchants, artisans and conquerors of new lands were not so much dependent on the feudal lords (boyars), having a greater share of freedom than their counterparts in other Russian principalities.
Novgorod market. Painting by Apollinary Vasnetsov. 1909 Wikimedia Commons political device. The level of democracy in a society is proportional to the level of its well-being. Historians often call wealthy commercial Novgorod a republic. This term is very conditional, but reflects the special system of government that has developed there.
The basis of the administration of Novgorod was the veche - a people's assembly, at which the most pressing issues of the city's life were discussed. Veche was not a purely Novgorod phenomenon. Appeared at the pre-state stage of history Eastern Slavs, such bodies of direct democracy existed
in many lands until the XIII-XIV centuries and disappeared only after the establishment of the yoke. The reason was largely due to the fact that the khans of the Golden Horde dealt only with princes, while uprisings against the Tatars were often raised by representatives of urban communities. However, in Novgorod the veche turned from a city advisory body with indefinite powers into a key governing body of the state. This happened in 1136, after the Novgorodians expelled Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich from the city and decided from now on to invite the prince at their own discretion. His powers were now limited by the text of a specific contract, which provided, for example, how many servants the prince could bring with him, where he had the right to hunt, and even what payment he would receive for the performance of his duties. Thus, the prince in Novgorod was a hired administrator who kept order and led the army. In addition to the prince, there were several more administrative positions in Novgorod: the posadnik, who headed the executive branch and was in charge of the court for criminal offenses, the tysyatsky, the head of the city militia (exercised control in the field of trade and ruled the court on commercial matters) and the archbishop, who was not only a religious leader , but also in charge of the treasury and represented the interests of the city in foreign policy.
Novgorod was divided into five districts-ends, and those, in turn, into streets. In addition to the citywide, there were also Konchan and Ulich vechas, at which issues of local importance were decided, where passions were seething and noses were often bloodied. These evenings were a place for an outburst of emotions
and rarely influenced city policy. The real power in the city was held by a narrow council of the so-called "300 Golden Belts" - the richest and most well-born boyars, who skillfully used veche traditions to their advantage. Therefore, despite the freedom-loving spirit of the Novgorodians and veche traditions, there are reasons to believe that Novgorod was more of a boyar oligarchy than a republic.
Sea chart by Olaf Magnus. 1539 One of the earliest maps of Northern Europe. Wikimedia Commons Foreign policy. Traditionally, the most important partner and rival of the Novgorodians was the Hansa - a union of cities engaged in trade
across the Baltic Sea. Novgorodians could not conduct independent maritime trade and were forced to deal only with the merchants of Riga, Revel and Derpt, selling their goods cheaply and acquiring European ones at a high price. Therefore, a possible direction of the foreign policy of Novgorod Rus, in addition to expansion to the east, was to advance to the Baltic states and fight
for their trading interests. In this case, the inevitable opponents of Novgorod, in addition to the Hansa, would be the German knightly orders - Livonian and Teutonic, as well as Sweden.
Religion. Novgorod merchants were very religious people. This is evidenced by the number of temples preserved in the city to this day.
and monasteries. At the same time, many of the "heresies" that spread in Rus' arose precisely in Novgorod - obviously, as a result of close ties
with Europe. As an example, we can cite the heresies of the Strigolniks and the “Judaizers” as a reflection of the processes of rethinking Catholicism
and the beginning of the Reformation in Europe. If Russia had its own Martin Luther, most likely he would be a Novgorodian.
Why didn't it work. Novgorod land was not densely populated. The number of inhabitants of the city itself in the XIV-XV centuries did not exceed 30 thousand people. Novgorod did not have sufficient human potential to fight for supremacy in Rus'. Another serious problem facing Novgorod was its dependence on food supplies from the principalities located south of it. Bread went to Novgorod through Torzhok, so as soon as the Vladimir prince captured this city, the Novgorodians were forced to fulfill his demands. Thus, Novgorod gradually became increasingly dependent on neighboring lands - first Vladimir, then Tver, and finally Moscow.
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Reasons for strengthening. In the X-XI centuries, Lithuanian tribes were
in a state of dependence on Kievan Rus. However, as a result of the collapse of the unified Russian state, they achieved independence already in the 1130s. There full swing there was a process of disintegration of the tribal community. In this sense, the Lithuanian principality found itself in an antiphase of its development with the surrounding (primarily Russian) lands, weakened by the separatism of local rulers and boyars. As historians believe, the final consolidation of the Lithuanian state took place in the middle of the 13th century against the backdrop of the invasion of Batu and the increased expansion of German knightly orders. The Mongol cavalry inflicted great damage on the Lithuanian lands, but at the same time cleared the space for expansion, creating a power vacuum in the region, which was used by the princes Mindovg (1195-1263) and Gediminas (1275-1341) to unite the Lithuanian, Baltic and Slavic tribes under their rule . Against the background of the weakening of the traditional centers of power, the inhabitants of Western Rus' saw Lithuania as a natural defender in the face of danger from the Golden Horde and the Teutonic Order.
The victory of the Mongol army at the Battle of Legnica in 1241. Miniature from the legend of St. Hedwig of Silesia. 1353 Wikimedia Commons territorial limits. In the period of its greatest prosperity under Prince Olgerd (1296-1377), the territories of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania stretched from the Baltic to the Northern Black Sea region, the eastern border ran approximately along the current border of Smolensk and Moscow, Oryol and Lipetsk, Kursk and Voronezh region. Thus, his state included modern Lithuania, the entire territory of modern Belarus, Smolensk region, and after the victory over the army of the Golden Horde in the Battle of Blue Waters (1362) - a significant part of Ukraine, including Kyiv. In 1368-1372, Olgerd waged war with the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich. In the event that success smiled at Lithuania and she managed to conquer the great principality of Vladimir, Olgerd or his descendants would unite all Russian lands under their rule. Perhaps then our capital would now be Vilnius, not Moscow.
The third edition of the statute of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, written in the Rusyn language. Late 16th century Wikimedia Commons Ethnic composition. The population of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the XIV century was only 10% Baltic peoples, who later became the basis of the Lithuanian, partly Latvian and Belarusian ethnic communities. The vast majority of the inhabitants, apart from Jews or Polish colonists, were Eastern Slavs. Thus, the written Western Russian language with Cyrillic letters (however, monuments written in Latin are also known) prevailed in Lithuania until the middle of the 17th century; it was used, among other things, in state document management. Despite the fact that the ruling elite in the country were Lithuanians, they
were not perceived by the Orthodox population as invaders. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a Balto-Slavic state in which the interests of both peoples were widely represented. Golden Horde yoke
and the transition of the western principalities under the rule of Poland and Lithuania predetermined the emergence of three East Slavic peoples - Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.
Extremely curious appearance in the Principality of Lithuania Crimean Tatars and Karaites, apparently related to the reign of Prince Vitovt
(1392-1430). According to one version, Vitovt resettled several hundred families of Karaites and Crimean Tatars to Lithuania. According to another, the Tatars fled there after the defeat of the Khan of the Golden Horde Tokhtamysh in the war with Timur (Tamerlane).
social structure. The social structure in Lithuania differed slightly from what was typical for the Russian lands. Most of the arable land was part of the princely domain, which was cultivated by involuntary servants and taxable people - categories of the population who were personally dependent on the prince. However, often non-taxable peasants were also involved in work on the prince's lands, including syabrs - personally free farmers who jointly owned arable land and lands. In addition to the Grand Duke, in Lithuania there were also specific princes (as a rule, Gediminovichi), who ruled different areas of the state, as well as large feudal lords - pans. Boyars and Zemyany were in military service
from the prince and received for this the right to own land. Separate categories of the population were philistines, clergy and Ukrainians - residents of the "Ukrainian" territories bordering the steppe and the Moscow principality.
Wooden panel depicting the coat of arms of one of the noble families of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. 15th century Getty Images / Fotobank.ru political device. The supreme power belonged to the Grand Duke (the term "ruler" was also used). The appanage princes and pans obeyed him. However, over time, the positions of the nobility and local feudal lords strengthened in the Lithuanian state. The council of the most influential pans, which appeared in the 15th century, was at first a legislative body under the prince, like a boyar duma. But by the end of the century, the Rada began to limit the princely power. At the same time, the Sejm appeared - a class-representative body, in which only representatives of the upper class - the gentry took part (in contrast to the Zemsky Sobors in Russia).
The lack of a clear order of succession to the throne also weakened the princely power in Lithuania. After the death of the old ruler, strife often arose, fraught with the danger of the collapse of a single state. In the end, the throne often went not to the oldest, but to the most cunning and warlike of the applicants.
As the position of the nobility strengthened (especially after the conclusion of the Union of Krevo with Poland in 1385 Union of Krevo- agreement
on the dynastic union between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland,
according to which the Lithuanian Grand Duke Jagiello, having married the Polish Queen Jadwiga, was proclaimed the Polish king.) The state of Lithuania developed
towards a limited gentry monarchy with an elected ruler.
A fragment of a letter from Khan Tokhtamysh to the King of Poland, the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiello. 1391 Khan asks to collect taxes and reopen roads for ortaks, official state traders in the service of the Genghisides. Ms. Dr. Marie Favereau-Doumenjou / Universiteit Leiden Foreign policy. The very emergence of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
in many respects it was a response to the foreign policy challenges faced by the population of the Baltic states and Western Russian principalities - the Mongol invasion and the expansion of the Teutonic and Livonian knights. Therefore, the main content of Lithuania's foreign policy was the struggle for independence and resistance to forced Catholicization. The Lithuanian state hung between two worlds - Catholic Europe and Orthodox Russia, and had to make its civilizational choice, which would determine its future. This choice was not easy. Among the Lithuanian princes there were enough Orthodox (Olgerd, Voyshelk) and Catholics (Gediminas, Tovtivil), and Mindovg and Vitovt several times switched from Orthodoxy to Catholicism and back. Foreign policy orientation and faith went hand in hand.
Religion. Lithuanians remained pagans for a long time. This partly explains the inconstancy of the Grand Dukes in matters of religion. There were enough Catholic and Orthodox missionaries in the state, there were Catholic and Orthodox dioceses, and one of the Lithuanian metropolitans, Cyprian, became the Metropolitan of Kyiv in 1378-1406.
and all Rus'. Orthodoxy in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania played an outstanding role for the upper strata of society and cultural circles, providing education - including the Baltic nobility from the Grand Duke's environment. Therefore, Lithuanian Rus, without a doubt, would be an Orthodox state. However, the choice of faith was also the choice of an ally. All European monarchies headed by the Pope stood behind Catholicism, while only the Russian principalities subordinated to the Horde and the agonizing Byzantine Empire were Orthodox.
King Vladislav II Jagiello. Detail of the Virgin Mary triptych from the Cathedral of Saints Stanislaus and Wenceslas. Krakow, 2nd half of the 15th century Wikimedia Commons Why didn't it work. After the death of Olgerd (1377), the new Lithuanian prince Jagiello converted to Catholicism. In 1385, under the terms of the Union of Krevo, he married Queen Jadwiga and became the Polish king, effectively uniting these two states under his rule. For the next 150 years, Poland and Lithuania, formally considered two independent states, were almost always ruled by one ruler. Polish political, economic and cultural influence on the Lithuanian lands was growing. Over time, the Lithuanians were baptized into Catholicism, and the Orthodox population of the country found itself in a difficult and unequal situation.
Muscovy
Reasons for strengthening. One of the many fortresses founded by the Prince of Vladimir Yuri Dolgoruky on the borders of his land, Moscow was distinguished by its favorable location. The city stood at the crossroads of river and land trade routes. It was possible to get to the Volga along the Moscow and Oka rivers, as the significance of the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” weakened, gradually turning into the most important trade artery along which goods from the East traveled. There was also the possibility of overland trade with Europe through Smolensk and Lithuania.
Kulikovo battle. Fragment of the icon "Sergius of Radonezh with life". Yaroslavl, XVII century Bridgeman Images/Fotodom However, it is finally clear how successful the location of Moscow turned out to be after the invasion of Batu. Not avoiding ruin and burned to the ground, the city quickly rebuilt. Its population increased annually due to immigrants from other lands: sheltered by forests, swamps and lands of other principalities, Moscow did not suffer so much in the second half of the 13th century
from the devastating campaigns of the Horde khans - warriors.
The important strategic position and the growth in the number of inhabitants of the city led to the fact that in 1276 Moscow had its own prince - Daniel, the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky. The successful policy of the first Moscow rulers also became a factor in strengthening the principality. Daniil, Yuri and Ivan Kalita encouraged the settlers, providing them with benefits and temporary exemption from taxes, increased the territory of Moscow by annexing Mozhaisk, Kolomna, Pereslavl-Zalessky, Rostov, Uglich, Galich, Beloozero and achieving recognition of vassalage from some others (Novgorod, Kostroma, etc.). They rebuilt and expanded the city fortifications, paid great attention to cultural development and temple construction. From the second decade of the XIV century, Moscow fought with Tver for the great reign of Vladimir. The key event in this struggle was the "Shchelkanov's army" of 1327. Ivan Kalita, who joined the army of Shevkal (in various readings also Cholkhan or Shchelkan), Uzbek's cousin, on his orders led the Tatar troops in such a way that the lands of his principality were not affected by the invasion. Tver never recovered from the destruction - the main rival of Moscow in the struggle for the great reign and influence on the Russian lands was defeated.
territorial limits. The Moscow principality was a constantly growing state. While the rulers of other Russian lands divided them among their sons, contributing to the increasing fragmentation of Rus', the Moscow princes in various ways (inheritance, military seizure, purchase of a label, etc.) increased the size of their lot. In a sense, Moscow played into the hands of the fact that out of the five sons of Prince Daniel Alexandrovich, four died childless and Ivan Kalita ascended the throne, inheriting the entire Moscow appanage, carefully collecting lands and changing the order of succession to the throne in his will. In order to consolidate the dominance of Moscow, it was necessary to preserve the integrity of the inherited possessions. Therefore, Kalita bequeathed to his younger sons to obey the elder in everything and unevenly distributed the land between them. Most of them remained with the eldest son, while the inheritances of the younger ones were rather symbolic: even united, they could not challenge the Moscow prince. The observance of the will and the preservation of the integrity of the principality was facilitated by the fact that many descendants of Ivan Kalita, such as Simeon the Proud, died in 1353, when a plague pandemic, known as the Black Death, reached Moscow.
After the victory over Mamai on the Kulikovo field (in 1380), Moscow was almost uncontestedly perceived as the center of the unification of Russian lands. In his will, Dmitry Donskoy transferred the Vladimir Grand Duchy as his fiefdom, that is, as an unconditional hereditary possession.
Ethnic composition. Before the arrival of the Slavs, the interfluve of the Volga and Oka was the boundary of the settlement of the Baltic and Finno-Ugric tribes. Over time, they were assimilated by the Slavs, but as early as the 14th century, compact settlements of Mary, Murom or Mordovians could be found in the Moscow principality.
social structure. The Moscow principality was originally a monarchy. But at the same time, the prince did not have absolute power. The boyars enjoyed great influence. So, Dmitry Donskoy bequeathed to his children to love the boyars and do nothing without their consent. The boyars were vassals of the prince and formed the basis of his senior squad. At the same time, they could change their overlord, moving to the service of another prince, which happened often.
The younger combatants of the prince were called "youths" or "gridi". Then the prince's "court" servants appeared, which could be free people and even serfs. All these categories eventually united into a group of “children of the boyars”, who never grew up to be boyars, but formed the social base of the nobility.
In the Moscow principality, the system of local relations was intensively developing: the nobles received land from the Grand Duke (from his domain) for service and for the duration of their service. This made them dependent on the prince
and strengthened his power.
Peasants lived on the lands of private owners - boyars or princes. For the use of land, it was necessary to pay dues and perform some work (“product”). Most of the peasants had personal freedom, that is, the right to move from one landowner to another,
at the same time, there was also an “involuntary servant”, who did not have such rights.
Portrait of Dmitry Donskoy. Yegoryevsky Historical and Artisticmuseum. Painting by an unknown artist. 19th century
Getty Images/Fotobank political device. Muscovy was a monarchy. All power - executive, legislative, judicial, military - belonged to the prince. On the other hand, the control system was far
from absolutism: the prince was too dependent on his squad - the boyars, the top of which was part of the princely council (a kind of prototype of the boyar duma). The key figure in the management of Moscow was the thousand. He was appointed prince from among the boyars. Initially, this position assumed the leadership of the city militia, but over time, with the support of the boyars, the thousandths concentrated in their hands some of the powers of city government (court, supervision of trade). In the middle of the XIV century, their influence was so high that even the princes themselves had to take them seriously.
But as the power of Daniel's descendants strengthened and centralized, the situation changed, and in 1374 Dmitry Donskoy abolished this position.
Local government was carried out by representatives of the prince - governors. Through the efforts of Ivan Kalita, there was no classical appanage system in the Muscovite state, but the younger brothers of the Moscow ruler received small allotments. In the boyar estates and noble estates, their owners were given the right to keep order and administer justice.
on behalf of the prince.
Kulikovo battle. Miniature from the Life of St. Sergius of Radonezh. 17th century Getty Images / Fotobank.ru Foreign policy. The main directions of the foreign policy activity of the Moscow principality were the collection of lands and the struggle for independence from the Golden Horde. Moreover, the first was inextricably linked with the second: in order to challenge the khan, it was necessary to accumulate strength and bring the united all-Russian army against him. Thus, in relations between Moscow and the Horde, two phases can be seen - the phase of obedience and cooperation and the phase of confrontation. The first was personified by Ivan Kalita, one of whose main merits, according to the chroniclers, was the cessation of the Tatar raids and the "great silence" that lasted the next 40 years. The second originates during the reign of Dmitry Donskoy, who felt strong enough behind him to challenge Mamai. This was partly due to the long turmoil in the Horde, known as the "great zamyatnya", during which the state split into separate regions-uluses, and the power in its western part was seized by the temnik Mamai, who was not a Genghisid (a descendant of Genghis Khan), and therefore rights the puppet khans he proclaimed were not legitimate. In 1380, Prince Dmitry defeated the army of Mamai on the Kulikovo field, but two years later Genghis Khan Tokhtamysh captured and plundered Moscow, once again imposing tribute on it and restoring his power over it. Vassal dependence persisted for another 98 years, but in relations between Moscow and the Horde, increasingly rare phases of obedience were increasingly replaced by phases of confrontation.
Another direction of the foreign policy of the Moscow principality was relations with Lithuania. The advance of Lithuania to the east due to the inclusion of Russian lands in its composition stopped as a result of a clash with the intensified Muscovite princes. In the 15th-16th centuries, the united Polish-Lithuanian state turned into the main opponent of the Moscow rulers, given their foreign policy program, which involved the unification of all Eastern Slavs under their rule, including those who lived in the Commonwealth.
Religion. Uniting the Russian lands around itself, Moscow relied on the help of the church, which, unlike the secular feudal lords, was always interested in the existence of a single state. The alliance with the church became another reason for the strengthening of Moscow in the first half of the 14th century. Prince Ivan Kalita launched a storm of activity in the city, building several stone churches: the Cathedral of the Assumption, the Cathedral of the Archangel, which became the burial place of the Moscow princes, the court church of the Savior on Bor and the church of St. John of the Ladder. One can only guess what this construction cost him. The Tatars were very jealous of this: all the extra money, in their opinion, should have gone to the Horde as a tribute, and not spent on the construction of temples. However, the game was worth the candle: Ivan Danilovich managed to convince Metropolitan Peter, who had lived in Moscow for a long time, to leave Vladimir completely. Peter agreed, but died the same year and was buried in Moscow. His successor Theognost finally made Moscow the center of the Russian metropolis, and the next metropolitan, Alexy, was from Moscow.
Why did it work. The success was associated with two major military victories for Moscow. The victory in the war with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1368-1372) and the recognition by Olgerd of Dmitry's right to the great reign of Vladimir meant that Lithuania admitted its defeat in the struggle for the unification of Russian lands. The victory on the Kulikovo field - even though it did not mean the end of the yoke - had a huge moral impact on the Russian people. Moscow Rus' was forged in this battle, and the authority of Dmitry Donskoy was such that in his will he transferred the great reign as his fiefdom, that is, a hereditary inalienable right that does not need to be confirmed with a Tatar label, humiliating himself in the Horde before the Khan.
In the XIII-XV centuries. most of the lands of the former Kievan Rus were united under the rule of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (GDL). At one time, Lithuania was stronger than any Russian principality. At the beginning of the 15th century, under Prince Vitovt (1392-1430), Lithuania achieved such power that the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily II the Dark (1425-1462), his grandson, was considered his vassal, and at one time a Lithuanian prince ruled Veliky Novgorod. It seemed that nothing could stop Lithuania from uniting all Russian lands, including North-Eastern, Suzdal Rus. But it happened differently. The reign of Vytautas was the peak of Lithuanian power. Already with him began its decline.
Grand Duchy of Lithuanian-Russian
The rise of Lithuania was facilitated by the Mongol invasion of Rus'. Lithuania and many western Russian principalities turned out to be aloof from him and began to rally to repel the threat. Western Russian princes sometimes willingly became vassals of Lithuania, at other times Lithuania conquered principalities by force. But unification with Lithuania meant freedom from paying tribute to the Golden Horde.
Under the Grand Duke Gediminas (1316-1341), Lithuania included the entire current territory of Belarus. Polotsk and Turov-Pinsk principalities and part of the Volyn principality have long been located here. Under his son Olgerd (1345-1377), Lithuania spread to the Kiev, Volyn, Pereyaslav, Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversk principalities. In the east, its borders included the entire Central Russian Upland and the ancient lands of the Vyatichi. In the 70s of the XIV century, Lithuanian squads came to Moscow more than once. At the very end of the 14th and in the first years of the 15th century, under Vitovt, Lithuania annexed the Principality of Smolensk, in the south came to the Black Sea.
Lithuanian princes were pagans. At the same time, they have long been influenced by Russian culture, and some of them converted to Orthodoxy. The written language of the GDL was Old Russian. The Gediminovich dynasty gradually replaced almost all the princes from the Rurik dynasty in the subject principalities. But the Gediminoviches became Russified, they were called in the Russian manner with “-vich” - for example, Dmitry Olgerdovich - and often pursued a policy independent of the Grand Duke, especially on the outskirts of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The religious tolerance of the Lithuanian princes and the widespread dissemination of Russian culture contributed to the fact that the state itself increasingly became the successor to Kievan Rus in every sense.
Union with Catholic Poland
However, one circumstance seriously complicated the position of Lithuania. Settled in the XII-XIII centuries. in the Baltics, the German Teutonic Order led an offensive against Lithuania, forcibly converting the population to Catholicism, taking away lands for their knights and turning the Baltic inhabitants into serfs.
Poland, neighboring Lithuania, was also Catholic, but it also experienced the onslaught of the Germans, and besides, it did not encroach on Lithuanian territories. The common danger brought Lithuania closer to Poland. Only Poland at that time could help Lithuania in opposing the Teutonic Order. But the Polish aristocracy was ready to provide this assistance only if Lithuania converted to Catholicism.
The turning point came in 1385. At that time, Jagiello Olgerdovich reigned in Lithuania, who came to power as a result of internecine war. Jagiello did not understand the means and was distinguished by extreme cruelty. It was no secret to anyone that he treacherously captured his uncle Keistut Gediminovich and then ordered him to be killed.
At the same time, the Polish throne was vacant. King Louis I of Luxembourg, who also held the throne of Hungary, died in 1382. Poland was formally ruled by his youngest daughter Jadwiga. The Polish nobility did not want unification with Hungary and prevented the accession to the throne of Louis' eldest daughter Maria. An amusing detail: Jadwiga was formally crowned as a man, with the title of king, not queen, since the basic laws of Poland forbade only a woman from occupying the throne.
At the same time, the Polish nobility came up with a plan for a dynastic union with Lithuania. They decided to marry the twelve-year-old Jadwiga to Jagiello, who was already over thirty years old. The only obstacle was the mutual love of Jadwiga and the fifteen-year-old Duke Wilhelm of Austria, who were betrothed as children. Wilhelm came to Krakow, and the young lovers even met secretly, until, finally, one day the guards of the Krakow archbishop closed the gates of the castle where the duke lived in front of the powerless queen, and escorted him out of Poland. After much persuasion, especially from the clergy, who promised the queen the highest reward in heaven for the conversion of pagans, Jadwiga agreed to marry Jagiello, who thus became the Polish king.
Vitovt Keistutovich, Jagiello's cousin, in 1386 also agreed to convert to Catholicism and plant it in Lithuania. It is curious that before that Vytautas was also baptized according to the Catholic rite in 1382, but in 1384 he converted to Orthodoxy. Despite further wars with Jagiello, Vytautas, having defended his right to the Lithuanian throne, recognized his vassalage to the Polish crown and continued the imposition of Catholicism.
The union of Lithuania with Poland, accompanied by a defeat in the rights of the Orthodox nobility, dealt the first serious blow to Lithuania's attempts to stand at the head of all Rus'.
Defeat from the Golden Horde
The Golden Horde was the main enemy of Lithuania in the east. In 1399, Vitovt went on a campaign with a powerful army, including Lithuanians, Russians, Poles, Teutons and Tatars - opponents of Khan Timur-Kutlug. The parties agreed on the Vorskla River. Khan won time by negotiations in anticipation of the troops of Temnik Edigey, and on August 12, the Horde utterly defeated Lithuania. So Lithuania received a second serious blow. Eastern Rus' remained in the sphere of influence of the Golden Horde.
Svidrigailov's turmoil
Orthodoxy in Lithuania long and stubbornly resisted the imposition of Catholicism. The most powerful reaction of the Orthodox population was the war for the Lithuanian throne, launched by Prince Svidrigail Olgerdovich. He himself was not Orthodox, but patronized the Orthodox population and tried to rely on their support, as well as on Moscow, in the struggle for power.
The wars of Svidrigailo, interspersed with truces, his captures, false oaths and renunciations of them, went from 1408 to 1440. In 1430-1432, after the death of Vytautas, Svidrigail managed to seize the throne of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for a short time. But his cruel violent temper set the entire population of the principality against him, including the Orthodox, who made a fatal mistake by relying on such a person, and not even a co-religionist.
The Troubles of Svidrigailo turned out to be the last, third decisive blow to the alternative that Orthodox Lithuania could play in history as a unifier of all Russian lands.
In 1408, two centers of the unification of Russian lands - Moscow and Lithuania for the first time received a common border, but the collision was avoided and the principality lived peacefully for almost a century. But from the beginning of the 16th century, a series of conflicts began, most of which ended in favor of the eastern state. Although occasionally there were defeats, and the Time of Troubles after the death of the last Rurikovich briefly reversed the process of reconquest, Ancient Rus' gradually revived under the hand of the Moscow ruler. Why did Moscow become the capital of Russia, and not Vilna?
Lithuania took full advantage of the Mongol invasion of Russian lands and began to annex the devastated principalities
The Lithuanians were the first to begin collecting Russian lands. In the period after the Mongol invasion until the early 1250s, Prince Mindovg occupied the western regions of the future Belarus. He and his descendants successfully defended the integrity of their new possessions from the Russian princes and their Horde overlords. And after the start of civil strife or the "great commotion" in the Golden Horde, Olgerd defeated three Tatar commanders in the Blue Waters and annexed Kyiv. The ancient capital of Prince Vladimir became a secondary city for the new rulers. Lithuania joined the race to annex the ownerless Russian lands.
At the time of the beginning of the Lithuanian conquests, Moscow was not even independent yet. In 1266, the young son of Alexander Nevsky Daniel received this city as his inheritance, which became the center of the new principality. His possessions were poor and small. But the prince was very lucky: in 1300, the Golden Horde Khan Tokhta defeated his recalcitrant commander Nogai. His Russian vassals went over to the service of Daniel and were used by him in wars to increase his principality.
In 1339, at the slander of Ivan Kalita, the Tver prince Alexander was killed by the Khan of the Golden Horde. After that, the only rival of Moscow was the Lithuanian state.
The liar, renegade and collaborator Ivan Kalita, son of Daniil, really strengthened the power of Moscow. He won the right to collect tribute for the khan from the Russian principalities, repeatedly directed the Tatar rati at all his enemies. But he kept his own lands intact. The children and grandchildren of Kalita only increased the army and the size of the state, until they equaled it in power with Lithuania, despite the late start.
However, the resources were not comparable. The northern Moscow principality was locked in forests, sparsely populated and had not very fertile soils, which barely allowed them to feed themselves. And Lithuania owned rich Ukrainian lands with a high population density. And the adoption of Catholicism and the union with Poland strengthened it even more.
The Lithuanian princes did everything to ensure that Western Rus', subordinate to them, received all the attributes of an “independent” power. With their submission, in 1317, Constantinople created a separate metropolis of the Russian Orthodox Church, not connected with Moscow. That time was vague for world Orthodoxy. The Turks ousted the Greeks from Asia and began territorial seizures in the Balkan Peninsula. Among the Greek church, talk began about submitting to the pope in order to receive military assistance from Europe. The church hierarchs of Western Rus' were also not opposed to recognizing the authority of Rome.
Among them, fermentation began, which ended in 1596 with the announcement by the Kyiv Metropolitan of the transition to submission to the Roman throne.
But this did not interfere with the rise of Moscow. What is the reason for the victory of the economically and militarily weaker Moscow principality? Its rulers did not stop paying tribute to the Golden Horde to the last, in order to be able to use the Tatar troops in their wars.
But this is only one reason for further victories. In 1385, the Lithuanian Grand Duke Jagiello was chosen as King of Poland. A gradual merger of the two states began. The subsequent Union of Horodel equalized the rights of the Polish and Lithuanian Catholic nobility. But the Orthodox boyars were excluded from this privileged group. They were no longer allowed into the princely council. "Difference in faith produces difference in opinion," the union explained. The restriction of the rights of Russian subjects on their own lands began. The rulers of Lithuania, instead of a previously devoted vassal, received the eternally dissatisfied Western Rus' - the "fifth column", always ready to stick a knife in the back.
Many Orthodox princes, according to the ancient Russian law, transferred to the service of the Moscow ruler. And this was not the end. The autocracy of the gentry in Poland and Lithuania led to the destruction of a strong central government. And in Moscow, the autocracy only strengthened. The first major military clash in 1500-1503 led to the loss of a third of Lithuania's possessions and the recognition of Ivan III of the title "sovereign of all Rus'", i.e. his rights to the historical lands of the Eastern Slavs.
Three great deeds of Ivan III - the overthrow of the Tatar yoke, the adoption of the Byzantine heritage and the victory over Lithuania
The strong power and desire of Western Rus' to unite with fellow believers led to the slow fall of the Commonwealth, which after the Pereyaslav Rada of 1654 became irreversible.