In 962, Otto I founded a state unique in its structure, which is a union of smaller countries united by the power of one person. Consider the history of this state.
Formation of the state
The formation of the Holy Roman Empire (SRI) happened in 962, however, the phrase "Roman Empire" was fixed only by the 11th century. Emphasizing its heredity to the ancient state, a two-headed eagle was chosen as the emblem of the empire, extending its wings to the east and west. The appearance of the prefix "Sacred" is associated with the name of Frederick I Barbarossa, who first used it in 1157.
Rice. 1. Map of the Holy Roman Empire in 1250.
According to the idea of Otto I, the creation of the Holy Roman Empire was supposed to be the revival of the empire of Charlemagne. So, in the 10th century, the young state included the lands of Germany, which became the nucleus of statehood, the Lower Lands (Netherlands), Northern and Central Italy, as well as Burgundy.
It is relatively difficult to call the HRE a great empire. Outside the German lands, the emperor's power over vassals was weak and was intended mainly for working on administrative mechanisms.
In 1046, Emperor Henry III received the exclusive right to appoint clergy to the post of Pope, as well as bishops of the German Church. During his reign, the Cluny Reform was carried out, introducing the ideas of church government in accordance with the norms of canon law. In 1075-1122, between the Pope and the emperor, a "struggle for investiture" began, in which the Church tried to reduce the influence of the monarch over herself.
Hohenstaufen dynasty
In 1122, the first representative of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, Friedrich Barbarossa, became the ruler of the HRE. He, as well as his successors, made the system of administration of state territories more centralized. In foreign policy, he participated in the 3rd crusade, conquered Italian cities and forced many border states to recognize him as their overlord.
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Rice. 2. Frederick Barbarossa.
In 1194, Henry VI Hohenstaufen took control of the Kingdom of Sicily, having married the daughter of King Roger II. Thanks to these events, the papal lands were completely surrounded by territories controlled by the SRI.
In 1220, Frederick II, son of Henry, tried to re-establish domination in Italy, for which he was excommunicated. However, he undertook a crusade to Palestine and was elected king of Jerusalem.
The decline of the empire
The reason for the weakening of the empire's positions was the fact that the imperial dynasty was interrupted that in 1250 and until 1312 the HRE emperors were not crowned.
1400 - the date of the official adoption of the flag of the empire, duplicating the coat of arms with the image of a two-headed eagle on a yellow background.
The French rulers repeatedly tried to get the crown, but each time it remained with the Germans. Pope Boniface VIII tried to reduce the status of imperial power, but by his actions he only aroused its support from various estates.
By the 15th century, the SRI had completely spoiled relations with the Papacy. The idea of why and how the Holy Roman Empire was formed was lost, and its borders narrowed down to the territory of Germany. In 1356, a new procedure for choosing the ruler of the HRE was consolidated. According to the law, the 7 kyurfüsts with the greatest influence in the HRE elected the emperor and put forward their requirements for his rule.
In 1438, the Austrian Habsburgs came to power in the HRE. During the 15th century, attempts were made to strengthen the role of the Reichstag, but to no avail. The reformation that began in the 16th century deprived the empire of any hope for modernization and reorientation. Social tension on religious grounds began to form in the HRE. The empire was a shaky alliance of many small Germanic principalities.
In 1555, the Augsburg Peace was concluded, which formalized the union between Lutherans and Catholics within the empire.
Rice. 3. Imperial districts of the SRI at the beginning of the 16th century.
In 1618-1648, the religious Thirty Years' War waged on the territory of the empire, which destroyed more than a third of the empire's population, and consolidated the freedom of choice of religion in various subjects of the empire.
In 1806, Franz II relinquished the crown, formalizing the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire.
What have we learned?
Throughout its existence, the Holy Roman Empire was more of a decorative spot on the map of Europe, and did not develop into a serious military and political power.
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Sacrum Imperium Romanum Nationis Teutonicae (lat.),
Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation (German)
The Holy Roman Empire of the German nation is a remarkable political institution that has retained the same form, the same claims for ten centuries (800 - 1806). The external history of the empire is, in essence, the history of Germany from the 9th to the 19th centuries and Italy in the Middle Ages. By its origin, C. The Roman Empire was ecclesiastical and Germanic; it was shaped by the unfading tradition of the universal dominion of eternal Rome; Germanic and Roman elements, merging, determined the all-embracing and abstract character of the empire as the center and head of the Western Christian world. The beginning of the Holy Roman Empire dates back to 800, when he was crowned by the Roman emperor. This event was prepared in advance, but Charles did not think about the separation of Rome from Constantinople: until 800, Byzantium was the legal heir to the Roman Empire, the empire renewed by Charles was a continuation of the ancient Roman Empire, and Charles was considered the 68th emperor, the successor to the eastern line immediately after deposed in 797, and not a successor. The 800 event was the result of an agreement between the pope, ecclesiastical and secular dignitaries, and the king. Karl actually owned the empire; he ruled in Rome - the capital of the empire (matrona imperii), was the protector of the church. But the Roman Empire was considered one, indivisible; Charles's coronation, without proclaiming the separation of the West from the East, declared Rome the capital, both political and ecclesiastical. Charles' authority was consecrated by the coronation, but not increased. The imperial title changed the position of Charles, surrounded him with special splendor; all Karl's activities since then revolved in the circle of theocratic ideas.
The second restoration of the empire was carried out by Otto the Great. Despite the previous turmoil, Rome seemed to be a "golden city" (aurea Roma), its fate - the fate of the whole world. “As long as the Colosseum is safe, Rome will live; when the Colosseum falls, Rome will fall, and when Rome falls, the whole world will fall ”- such was the idea of contemporaries about the greatness of the ancient empire. On February 2, 962, Otto aroused general enthusiasm with his crowning as "Emperor Augustus." In the mind of a medieval man to whom antiquity bequeathed the idea of a world monarchy, there was a deep conviction of the necessary connection between the Roman Empire and the Catholic Church. The position of the emperor and his functions were determined by comparing the power of the imperial with the power of the papal. He is the imperator terrenus, that is, the governor of God on earth in secular affairs, and "patronus", that is, the protector of the church; his authority in everything corresponds to the authority of the pope, the relationship between them is analogous to the relationship between soul and body. "As in heaven," said the emperor Frederick I, "there is only one God, so on earth there is only one pope and one emperor." The coronation ceremony and the official titles of the emperor indicate the desire to give the imperial power a divine character. The emperor was considered the representative of all Christians. He is the “head of the Christian world”, “the secular head of the faithful,” “the patron saint of Palestine and the Catholic faith,” superior in dignity to all kings. Before their coronation in Rome, the emperors from the 11th to the 16th centuries. bore the title "Romanorum rex semper Augustus", and after coronation - "Romanorum Imperator semper Augustus". Since 962, the beginning of the union in one person of two titles - the Roman Emperor and the German King. At first this connection was purely personal, then official and real. Empire of the 10th century was, however, essentially a feudal monarchy. Having assimilated the idea of their power from the ancient world, the emperors thought to implement it in a feudal way; imperial power gradually became feudal.
In Rome, Otto was only an emperor, not a king; he was in charge of the apostolic see (deposition of John XII), led the debate of the synod, looked at the pope as his creature, but could not firmly establish himself in the capital, in fact had no power here, like his successors. Byzantium did not recognize the rude "franc" as emperor. In France, the emperors' claims were also not recognized. The empire of the X - XI centuries. included Germany itself, most (2/3) of Italy, Burgundy, Bohemia, Moravia, Poland, Denmark, partly Hungary. The successors of Otto I, pursuing chimerical goals, met with opposition in everything from the papacy, feudalism and national isolation. Otto III (983 - 1002) completely immersed himself in the idea of a worldwide Roman Empire, turned his back on his fellow tribesmen, considered himself a Roman, dreamed of establishing Rome at the head of Germany, Lombardy and Greece. The empire reached a significant power under Henry III (1039 - 1056) of the Franconian, who took advantage of the moment when the papal power had not yet had time to strengthen. He was the complete lord of Italy, freely disposed of the fate of the papal throne, but caused a terrible reaction that destroyed his successor. The struggle between Henry IV and Gregory VII dealt the first and hardest blow to the empire, significantly lowering its charm and instilling in Italy, along with the German princes, confidence in its forces. The Worms concordat of 1122 left the battlefield for the Pope. After the death of Henry V (1124), the jurisdiction of the crown became much less: the independence of princes and barons was recognized.
Brilliant representatives of the idea of imperial power were in the second half of the XII and the first half of the XIII century. Hohenstaufens. Among them, the first place belongs to Frederick I (1152 - 1189), in whose person the imperial power opposed the pope with theoretical arguments. Frederick considered his power to be directly dependent on God and as sacred as the papal. Bologna lawyers argued that the right to establish laws belongs to the emperor, whose will is the law, for it is written: "quod principi placuit legislation habet vigorem, quum populus ei et in eum omne suum imperi um et polestatem concesserit." The true ruler, however, Frederick I was only in Germany. The empire at that time included sowing. part of Italy and the Kingdom of Burgundy, i.e. Provence, Dauphine, Franche-Comte, Switzerland, Lorraine, Alsace and part of Flanders. Bohemia and the Slavic lands in Mecklenburg and Pomerania depended on the empire. Byzantium, as before, harbored enmity towards the emperors, considering them usurpers and barbarians, insultingly distorting the titles of the emperors: for example, Isaac Angel called Frederick I "the main prince of Alemannia."
Emperors were crowned with four crowns: the crown in Aachen made the monarch “king of the Franks”, and from the time of Henry II - “king of the Romans”, coronation in Milan - king of Italy, in Rome he received a double crown “lirbis et orbis”, and Frederick I, under end of life, he also took the fourth crown - Burgundy (regnum Burgundiae or regnum Arelatcase). Crowning in Milan and Aachen, the emperors did not call themselves kings of the Lombards and Franks, since these titles were lost in comparison with the title of emperor. The imperial title was accepted only after the coronation in Rome, and this created an extremely important basis for the claims of the pope, from whose hands the crown was passed. To the name "Roman Empire" Frederick I added the epithet "Sacred", which did not add anything new to the real power of the emperor, but indicated its divine origin. Together with the Hohenstaufens, the idea of imperial power went to the grave. In Germany, the imperial power collapsed due to the founding of the territorial independence of the princes (the era of the great interregnum).
A new period in the history of the S. Empire begins with the time of Rudolf of Habsburg (1273). By the XIV century. The Holy Empire is, in essence, the German Empire. The power of the emperor was recognized only in Germany, and even then only in theory, since in reality it passed into the hands of the feudal lords. Emperors of the XIV century are not ashamed of anything in pursuing their dynastic interests and multiplying their ancestral possessions. Only one name remained from the magnificent title of the Holy Roman Empire: the princes plundered all the lands and divided the attributes of imperial power among themselves, leaving the emperor with honorable rights and considering him their fief lord. The emperors of this era lay crowns, cities, live on someone else's expense, endure any humiliation before the pope, but continue to call themselves the heirs of the Caesars, the heads of Christianity and the rulers of the world, sacrificing everything for form and appearance.
Charles IV promises the Pope not to stay in Rome for more than one day and receives a crown from the Pope as a gift. Sigismund (1410 - 1437) loved to live at the expense of the imperial cities and willingly visited where he was treated. The imperial power was especially humiliated under Frederick III (1440 - 1493), who reiterated A.E. I. O. U. (Austriae est imperare orbi universo) - and fed on monasteries and imperial cities. His role in relation to dad made him pathetic in the eyes of everyone. After Frederick III, no emperor was crowned in Rome.
During the interregnum, the empire lost part of its territory: Poland overthrew the yoke of Germany, the Hungarians brutally devastated the eastern border of the empire. After Henry VII (1308-13), the power of the emperors over Italy ended; in 1350 and 1457 Dauphine passed to France, and in 1486 - Provence. Switzerland also ceased to be dependent on the empire (treatise of 1499). Added to this was the internal weakness of the empire as an aggregate of constantly warring small states. The Habsburg dynasty seeks to merge the empire with the Austrian monarchy. During the reign of Charles V (1519 - 1555), the imperial power increased significantly, but the attempt to return it to its former importance met with opposition both from the German princes and from other states. The Reformation destroyed the theory on which the empire was based.
The last period of the existence of the Holy Empire is the saddest (1648 - 1806). The Peace of Westphalia deprived the emperor of any possibility of direct intervention in the administration. The Holy Empire becomes exclusively the German Empire, a fragile confederation, the existence of which gradually loses all meaning. The "hereditary enemy of the Holy Empire" was Louis XIV. In the XVIII century. the existence of the empire was almost forgotten: only high-profile titles remained. The whole spirit of the 18th century. contradicted the idea of the Holy Empire. The revolution, destroying feudalism, shook the old medieval building to its foundations. The Rashtat Congress (1797 - 98) fully revealed the internal disintegration of the Holy Empire, which had always suffered from a lack of national unity and political freedom. The last emperor of the Holy Empire was Franz II (1792 - 1806). At this time, the destinies of Europe were ruled by Napoleon, who considered himself the true successor of Charlemagne and was carried away by the idea of a "world monarchy"; in March 1805 he was crowned with an iron crown in Milan. After the Peace of Presburg (December 26, 1805), Franz II renounced the rank of emperor: since 1804 he began to call himself "the hereditary emperor of Austria." This was the end of the Holy Roman Empire.
Under the Saxon and Franconian emperors, the imperial throne was selective. Every Christian (i.e., Catholic) could be an emperor, although usually a member of one of the most powerful princely families in Germany was elected as emperor. So reigned, after Konrad the Franconian, the Saxon dynasty (919 - 1024), the Franconian (1024 - 1125), after Lothair Supplemburgsky (1125 - 1138) - the Hohenstaufens (1138 - 1250), the Habsburgs (1273 - 1291 and 1298 - 1308), Luxembourg house (1308 - 1313 and 1346 - 1437), from 1438 - again the Habsburgs. The emperor was elected by the electors. Their independence was legalized by the golden bull. This order lasted until the 30-year war.
Emperors
|
Carolingians |
|
|
Ludolfings |
|
| 962-973 | |
| 973-983 | |
| 996-1002 | |
| 1014-1024 | |
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Franconian dynasty |
|
| 1027-1039 | |
| 1046-1056 | |
| 1084-1105 | |
| 1111-1125 | |
| (from the Saxon house) | 1133-1137 |
|
Hohenstaufens |
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| 1155-1190 | |
| 1191-1197 | |
| (from the house of the Welfs) | 1209-1215 |
| 1220-1250 | |
| 1303-1308 | |
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Luxemburgs |
|
| 1312-1313 | |
| (Wittelsbach) | 1328-1347 |
| 1355-1378 | |
| 1410-1437 | |
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Habsburgs | |
Recently, many articles and analyzes have appeared showing that the beginning of the Romanov rule on the territory of Russia and later Russia is, in fact, the occupation of Muscovy, and in the future, the appropriation of other territories, including such huge ones as Siberia and Far East with Alaska. With the latter, it is not clear what happened, apparently it was passed on by order, since and without it, they were connected quite a bit. I want to add my "5 kopecks" to this baggage of alternative historical views of that confused piece of history, as it seems to everyone, was rewritten in favor of the winners.
I have always wondered why in the full text of the title of commander A.V. Suvorov there is such a rank: “... Count Russian Empire with the name Suvorov-Rymniksky (1789) and the Holy Roman Empire (1789) ... "
The full text from Wikipedia reads like this:
“Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov (1729-1800) - the great Russian commander who did not suffer a single defeat in his military career, one of the founders of the Russian military art, the prince of the Russian Empire with the title of Prince of Italy (1799), the count of the Russian Empire with the name Suvorov-Rymniki (1789) and the Holy Roman Empire (1789), Generalissimo of the Russian land and naval forces, Field Marshal of the Austrian and Sardinian armies, the Sardinian Kingdom, the Grand and Prince of the royal blood (with the title of "cousin of the king"), Chevalier of all Russian and many foreign military orders ".
From what merits he became the Count of the Roman Empire, which, according to official sources, ceased to exist in 476 AD. Even if we consider that after the collapse of the Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire remained or was formed with the center in Constantinople, then it lasted only until 1453.
Let me remind you that for now I will argue from the standpoint of the dates of the official history, to the dates and events of which I also have questions.
But what was my surprise that the Roman Empire did not disappear anywhere after the 15th century. This name was revived in the Holy Roman Empire.
From the same Wikipedia: “... public education, which existed from 962 to 1806 and united many territories of Europe. In the period of its highest prosperity, the empire included: Germany, which was its core, northern and central Italy, the Netherlands, the Czech Republic, as well as some regions of France. "
This is not a semi-mythical union of countries, there were also coins:
Kreutzer Holy Roman Empire (962-1806) Silver. Year of issue: 1666
Thaler Holy Roman Empire (962-1806) Silver. Year of issue: 1655
School history course was one of my least favorite. I do not know why. Maybe for the reason that it says there is true information about the past fraction of a percent. I did not perceive this information. Now it's the other way around. But in any case, I just don't remember this fact.
Here is the coat of arms of the Holy Roman Empire (I indicated the flag at the very beginning of the article):
Double-headed eagle, later - in the symbolism of Russia
I don’t know how for those who are quite familiar with the history of the Roman Empire and history in general, but for me it was a revelation.
If you just include logic and analyze the facts, then all the military actions in which the great commander A. Suvorov participated is in fact an increase in the area of the occupied territory and the suppression of riots. The suppression of the Pugachev rebellion, in which Suvorov was directly involved, looks like "defeated the remnants of Tartary's forces and cleaned up the territory." After all, a great Russian commander cannot have such merits within his country that the neighboring empire assigns him the honorary title of count after himself. This means that the merits were in the direction of this very Holy Roman Empire.
By all logic, Alexander Vasilyevich can be put on a par with these generalissimos of the Holy Roman Empire:
Military actions with the participation of Suvorov's army in his Italian and Swiss campaigns of 1799 become clear. An anti-French coalition with the participation of Russia as part of the Holy Roman Empire. And also the suppression of the uprising in Poland by his troops, the Turkish war.
I get the following impression: if there is nothing denigrating him in the official story about the ruler and commander, then something is wrong here and everything needs to be revised. What is happening recently with the deeds of Peter I.
The Holy Roman Empire and Russia are, in fact, one territory with one administration through the Romanov-Oldenburgskys who were installed here with endless wars for domination over trade routes and peoples.
I deliberately put in quotation marks “territory of Russia” in the title of the article. The very concept of Russia appeared during the time of Peter I. We even forgot the name of this part of our Motherland. We only remember about Russia, Muscovy (as they called it in the west). And there they still write as it should be: Russia. If you read not in English, but in Latin, then it is correct: Russia.
I will not write about Tartarus, because everyone has heard about her. But no one can still understand where this power and the country as a whole disappeared after the campaigns to establish "constitutional order" in the western lands of their provinces? Why were the principalities of Muscovy able to get out of the yoke (as historians call it) which lasted until 1480? Except for the version of a general catastrophe, it is still difficult to find an explanation for its rapid disappearance. And references in sources are cleaned up quickly.
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Kings of Italy is a title that was held by the rulers of kingdoms located on the territory of the modern state. After the collapse of the Roman Empire in the north of Italy, the Italic (Lombard) kingdom was formed. For almost 800 years, it was part of the Holy Roman Empire, when the title of the Italian king was borne by its emperors.
In 1804 it was created by the French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. The last king of Italy, Umberto II, ruled from 05/09/1946 to 06/12/1946.
First Roman king
The title of king appears in the early Middle Ages. He was called the rulers of a number of historical kingdoms that arose in 395 after the collapse of the Roman Empire into two parts: Western and Eastern, known as Byzantium, which existed for another thousand years. Western was attacked by barbarians. The leader of one of these peoples, Odoacer, overthrew the last Roman emperor in 476 and was proclaimed the first king of Italy.
Zeno made him his governor. The entire structure of the Roman Empire was preserved. Odoacer became a Roman patrician. But the power under the control of Byzantium did not suit him, and he supported the commander Illus, who staged a rebellion against Zeno. The latter turned for help to Theodoric, the leader of the Ostgoths. His army, having crossed the Alps in 489, captured Italy. Theodoric becomes its king.
Duchy of Friuli - state of the Lombards
In 534 Byzantium declared war on the Ostrogoths, after 18 years their state ceased to exist, Italy became part of it. 34 years later, the Lombards invaded the Apennine Peninsula. They captured the interior regions of Italy, forming the state of the Lombards - the Duchy of Friuli. It is from this time that the name of the northern region of Italy - Lombardy comes from. The Byzantines from the territory of the former Western Roman Empire were left with coastal lands.
Joining Frankia
The actual rulers of the Italian lands under the rule of Byzantium were the popes, who feared the strengthening of the Lombards and the capture of Rome. The only ones who could resist these warlike long-bearded Germans were the Franks. The founder of the ruling dynasty of Frankish-Carolingian kings, Pepin the Short, crowned by Pope Stephen III and becoming king of Italy, helped to recapture the Italian possessions of Byzantium for the papal throne. The Duchy of Rome, Umbria, the Ravenna Exarchate, the Pentapolis became the founding of the Papal State.
The capture of part of the papal territories by the Lombars in 772 forced the king of the Franks Charlemagne to enter into war with them. In 774, the Langobar state ceased to exist. Charlemagne declared himself king of Italy, or rather its northern part. After 5 years, Pope Adrian I officially crowned him.
In 840, the lands of the Franks were gripped by troubles, as a result of which Frankia was divided into several states. Italy became part of the Middle Kingdom, of which Lothair I became king. The Franks did not pay much attention to Italy, considering it an insignificant outskirts. The country was ruled in the same way as under the Lombars. The control center was located in the city of Pavia, which was considered its capital.
The entry of northern Italy into the Holy Roman Empire
Gradually, Italy, which was of no particular importance to the Franks, unofficially disintegrated into several feudal states, the government of which was in the hands of the local elite. In 952, the Italian king Berengar II fell into the hands of the German emperor Otto I. An attempt to free himself from subjugation to the Germans led to the fact that in 961 Emperor Otto took Pavia at the head of the army, deposed King Berengar and was crowned with the "iron crown of the Longobars". Northern Italy entered the Holy Roman Empire for many years.
Southern italy
In the south of Italy, events developed in a different way. The local princes often recruited the Normans into the service. As a result of his marriage in 1030 to the sister of the ruler of Naples Sergius IV, the Norman Reinulf received the gift of the county of Aversa, in which the first Norman state was formed. The Normans, gradually subjugating the territory of the South of Italy, ousting the Arabs and Byzantines, created a single state. Their power was blessed by the Pope.
By the beginning of the 15th century, the entire territory of Italy was divided into five large states playing a significant role (two republics - Florentine and Byzantine, the Duchy of Milan, the Papal State, the Kingdom of Naples), as well as five independent dwarf states: Genoa, Mantua, Lucca, Siena and Ferrara. Since the end of the 15th century, the so-called Italian wars took place on the territory of Italy, as a result of which some cities and provinces were under the rule of the French, Spaniards, and Germans.
Unification of Italy, creation of a kingdom
After Napoleon Bonaparte was proclaimed emperor of France in 1804, he became king of all possessions in Italy and even crowned with the iron crown of the Lombarres. The papacy is deprived of secular power. Three states were formed on the territory of Italy: the North-West was part of France, in the north-east and the Kingdom of Naples.
The struggle for the unification of Italy continued, but it was not until 1861 that the all-Italian parliament, which met in Turin, promulgated a document establishing the kingdom. It was headed by Victor Emmanuel - the king of Italy, before that the former king of Turin. As a result of the unification of Italy, Lazio and Venice were annexed. The formation of the Italian state continued.
But the time of monarchies has passed. Revolutionary trends also touched Italy. The first World War and the crisis of the 30s led to the rule of nationalists under the leadership of Mussolini. King Victor Emmanuel III stained himself with shameful non-interference in the internal affairs of the country, which led to the creation of a fascist regime. This completely turned the people away from royal rule. His son Umberto II ruled the country for 1 month and 3 days. In 1946, a republican system was established in the country by universal suffrage.
Holy Roman Empire, for each new monarch, at least a double procedure has become traditional: election in Germany and coronation in Rome (sometimes between them there was a coronation in Milan as king of Italy). The king's trip from Germany to Rome in the Middle Ages, as a rule, turned into a military campaign. In addition, it was required to enlist the support of the Pope, either wait for death or organize the overthrow of a hostile pope. From election to coronation in Rome, the contender for the imperial throne was called the Roman king.
This title had another function. To ensure the transfer of power from father to son, almost every emperor tried to organize the election of a Roman king during his lifetime. Thus, the title of Roman king often meant crown prince.
- Otto II the Red, 961-967 (son of Otto I)
- Otto III, 983-996 (son of Otto II)
- Saint Henry II, 1002-1014 (second cousin of Otto III)
- Conrad II, 1024-1027
- Henry III, 1028-1046 (son of Conrad II)
- Henry IV, 1054-1084 (son of Henry III)
- Rudolph Swabian 1077-1080 (husband of Henry IV's sister)
- Hermann von Salm, 1081-1088
- Conrad, 1087-1098 (son of Henry IV)
- Henry V, 1099-1111 (son of Henry IV)
- Lothar II, 1125-1133
- Conrad III, 1127-1135
- Conrad III, 1138-1152 (aka)
- Heinrich Berengar, 1146-1150 (son of Conrad III)
- Frederick I Barbarossa, 1152-1155 (nephew of Conrad III)
- Henry VI, 1169-1191 (son of Frederick I)
- Philip of Swabian, 1198-1208 (son of Frederick I)
- Otto IV, 1198-1209
- Frederick II, 1196-1220 (son of Henry VI)
- Henry (VII), 1220-1235 (son of Frederick II)
- Heinrich Raspe, 1246-1247
- Wilhelm Dutch, 1247-1256
- Conrad IV, 1237-1250 (son of Frederick II)
- Richard Cornwall, 1257-1272
- Alphonse of Castile, 1257-1273
- Rudolph I, 1273-1291
- Adolphus of Nassau, 1292-1298
- Albrecht I, 1298-1308 (son of Rudolf I)
- Henry VII, 1308-1312
- Louis IV, 1314-1328
- Frederick of Austria, 1314-22, 1325-30
- Charles IV, 1346-47
- Charles IV, 1349-55 (aka)
- Gunther von Schwarzburg, 1349
- Wenzel I, 1376-1378 (son of Charles IV)
- Ruprecht Palatinate, 1400-1410
- Sigismund, 1410-1433 (son of Charles IV)
- Yost, 1410-1411
- Albrecht II, 1438-1439
- Frederick III, 1440-1452
- Maximilian I, 1486-1508 (son of Frederick III)
- Charles V, 1519-1530
- Ferdinand I, 1531-1558 (brother of Charles V)
- Maximilian II, 1562-1564 (son of Ferdinand I)
- Rudolph II, 1575-1576 (son of Maximilian II)
- Ferdinand III, 1636-1637 (son of Ferdinand II)
- Ferdinand IV, 1653-1654 (son of Ferdinand III)
- Joseph I, 1690-1705 (son of Leopold I)
- Joseph II, 1764-1765 (son of Franz I)
- Napoleon II, 1811-1832 (son of Napoleon I)
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Notes (edit)
Excerpt from the Roman King
Anna Pavlovna's premonition was indeed justified. The next day, during a prayer service in the palace on the occasion of the sovereign's birthday, Prince Volkonsky was summoned from the church and received an envelope from Prince Kutuzov. This was Kutuzov's report, written on the day of the battle from Tatarinova. Kutuzov wrote that the Russians did not retreat a single step, that the French had lost much more than ours, that he was reporting in a hurry from the battlefield, not having time to collect the latest information. So it was a victory. And immediately, without leaving the temple, gratitude was given to the creator for his help and for the victory.Anna Pavlovna's presentiment was justified, and a joyfully festive mood of spirit reigned in the city all morning. Everyone recognized the victory as perfect, and some have already spoken about the capture of Napoleon himself, about his overthrow and the election of a new head for France.
Away from business and amid the conditions of court life, it is very difficult for events to be reflected in all their fullness and strength. Unwittingly, general events are grouped around one particular case. So now the main joy of the courtiers was as much in the fact that we had won, as in the fact that the news of this victory came precisely on the birthday of the sovereign. It was like a lucky surprise. In the news of Kutuzov, it was also said about the losses of the Russians, and among them Tuchkov, Bagration, Kutaisov were named. The sad side of the event, too, involuntarily in the local, St. Petersburg world was grouped around one event - the death of Kutaisov. Everyone knew him, the emperor loved him, he was young and interesting. On this day, everyone met with the words:
- How amazing it happened. In the most prayer service. And what a loss the Kutaisov! Oh, what a pity!
- What did I tell you about Kutuzov? - Prince Vasily spoke now with the pride of a prophet. - I have always said that he alone is able to defeat Napoleon.
But the next day no news came from the army, and the general voice became alarmed. The courtiers suffered for the suffering of the unknown in which the sovereign was.
- What is the position of the sovereign! - said the courtiers and no longer extolled, as the day before yesterday, and now they condemned Kutuzov, who was the cause of the emperor's anxiety. Prince Vasily on that day no longer boasted of his protege Kutuzov, but remained silent when it came to the commander-in-chief. In addition, by the evening of that day, it was as if everything had come together in order to plunge the Petersburg residents into alarm and anxiety: another terrible news had been added. Countess Elena Bezukhova died suddenly from this terrible disease, which was so pleasant to pronounce. Officially in large societies, everyone said that Countess Bezukhova died of a terrible attack of angine pectorale [chest sore throat], but in intimate circles they told details about how le medecin intime de la Reine d "Espagne [the medic of the Queen of Spain] prescribed Helene small doses some kind of medicine for performing a certain action; but how Helene, tormented by the fact that the old count suspected her, and the fact that her husband, to whom she wrote (this unfortunate, depraved Pierre), did not answer her, suddenly took a huge dose of the medicine prescribed for her and died in agony before they could provide help. ”It was said that Prince Vasily and the old count took up the Italian, but the Italian showed such notes from the unfortunate deceased that he was immediately released.
The general conversation focused on three sad events: the uncertainty of the sovereign, the death of Kutaisov and the death of Helen.
On the third day after Kutuzov's report, a landowner from Moscow arrived in St. Petersburg, and the news of the surrender of Moscow to the French spread throughout the city. It was terrible! What was the position of the sovereign! Kutuzov was a traitor, and Prince Vasily, during the visites de condoleance [visits of condolence] on the occasion of the death of his daughter, which he received, spoke of Kutuzov, whom he had previously praised (he was forgiven in sorrow to forget what he had said before), he said, that nothing else could be expected from a blind and depraved old man.
- I am only surprised how it was possible to entrust such a person with the fate of Russia.
While this news was still unofficial, one could still doubt it, but the next day the following report came from Count Rostopchin:
“The adjutant of Prince Kutuzov brought me a letter, in which he demands from me police officers to escort the army to the Ryazan road. He says he is leaving Moscow with regret. Sovereign! Kutuzov's deed decides the lot of the capital and your empire. Russia will shudder upon learning of the surrender of the city where the greatness of Russia is concentrated, where the ashes of your ancestors are. I will follow the army. I took everything out, all I have to do is cry about the fate of my fatherland. "
Having received this report, the sovereign sent the following rescript to Kutuzov with Prince Volkonsky:
“Prince Mikhail Ilarionovich! Since August 29, I have not received any reports from you. Meanwhile, on September 1, through Yaroslavl, from the Moscow commander-in-chief, I received the sad news that you decided to leave Moscow with the army. You yourself can imagine the effect this news made on me, and your silence aggravates my surprise. I am sending with this General Adjutant Prince Volkonsky in order to learn from you about the position of the army and about the reasons that prompted you to such a sad resolve. "
Nine days after the abandonment of Moscow, a messenger from Kutuzov arrived in St. Petersburg with the official news of the abandonment of Moscow. This sent was the Frenchman Michaud, who did not know Russian, but quoique etranger, Busse de c? Ur et d "ame, [although he is a foreigner, but Russian at heart,] as he himself said to himself.