"If the patient does not feel better after talking with the doctor, then this is not a doctor."
V.M. Bekhterev
Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev (January 20, 1857 - December 24, 1927, Moscow) - an outstanding Russian physician, neuropathologist, physiologist, psychologist, founder of reflexology and pathopsychological direction in Russia, academician.
In 1907 he founded a neuropsychiatric institute in St. Petersburg, now bearing the name of Bekhterev.
Biography
Born into the family of a minor civil servant in the village of Sorali, Yelabuga district, Vyatka province, presumably January 20, 1857 (he was baptized on January 23, 1857). He was a representative of the ancient Vyatka family of the Bekhterevs. Educated at the Vyatka gymnasium and the St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy. At the end of the course (1878), Bekhterev devoted himself to the study of mental and nervous diseases and for this purpose he worked at the clinic of prof. I. P. Merzheevsky.
In 1879, Bekhterev was admitted to full membership of the St. Petersburg Society of Psychiatrists. And in 1884 he was sent abroad, where he studied with Dubois-Raymond (Berlin), Wundt (Leipzig), Meinert (Vienna), Charcot (Paris), etc. - Associate Professor of the St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy, and since 1885 was a professor at Kazan University and head of the psychiatric clinic of the Kazan regional hospital. While working at Kazan University, he created a psychophysiological laboratory and founded the Kazan Society of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists. In 1893 he headed the Department of Nervous and Mental Diseases of the Medical-Surgical Academy. In the same year he founded the journal "Neurological Bulletin". In 1894, Vladimir Mikhailovich was appointed a member of the medical council of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and in 1895 - a member of the military medical scientific council under the Minister of War and at the same time a member of the council of the nursing home for the mentally ill. From 1897 he also taught at the Women's Medical Institute.
Organized in St. Petersburg the Society of Psychoneurologists and the Society of Normal and Experimental Psychology and Scientific Organization of Labor. He edited the journals "Review of Psychiatry, Neurology and Experimental Psychology", "Study and Education of the Personality", "Questions of the Study of Labor" and others.
In November 1900, Bekhterev's two-volume book "Pathways of the Spinal Cord and Brain" was nominated by the Russian Academy of Sciences for the Academician KM Baer Prize. In 1900, Bekhterev was elected chairman of the Russian Society of Normal and Pathological Psychology.
After completing work on seven volumes of "Fundamentals of the doctrine of the functions of the brain", Bekhterev's special attention as a scientist began to be attracted by the problems of psychology. Proceeding from the fact that mental activity arises as a result of the work of the brain, he considered it possible to rely mainly on the achievements of physiology, and, above all, on the theory of combined (conditioned) reflexes. In 1907-1910, Bekhterev published three volumes of the book "Objective Psychology". The scientist argued that all mental processes are accompanied by reflex motor and autonomic reactions, which are available for observation and registration.
He was a member of the editorial committee of the multivolume "Traite international de psychologie pathologique" ("International treatise on pathological psychology") (Paris, 1908-1910), for which he wrote several chapters. In 1908, the Psychoneurological Institute, founded by Bekhterev, began its work in St. Petersburg.
In May 1918, Bekhterev applied to the Council of People's Commissars with a petition to organize an Institute for the Study of the Brain and Mental Activity. Soon the Institute was opened, and Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev was its director until his death. In 1927 he was awarded the title of Honored Scientist of the RSFSR.
He died suddenly on December 24, 1927 in Moscow, a few hours after he poisoned himself with ice cream at the Bolshoi Theater1.
After his death, V.M.Bekhterev left his own school and hundreds of students, including 70 professors.
Scientific contribution
Bekhterev investigated a wide range of neurological, physiological, morphological and psychological problems. In his approach, he has always focused on a comprehensive study of the problems of the brain and humans. Carrying out the reformation of modern psychology, he developed his own teaching, which he consistently designated as objective psychology (from 1904), then as psycho-reflexology (from 1910) and as reflexology (from 1917). He paid special attention to the development of reflexology as a complex science of man and society (different from physiology and psychology), designed to replace psychology.
He widely used the concept of "nervous reflex". He introduced the concept of "combination-motor reflex" into circulation and developed the concept of this reflex. Discovered and studied the pathways of the human spinal cord and brain, described some brain formations. Established and identified a number of reflexes, syndromes and symptoms. Physiological reflexes of ankylosing spondylitis (scapular-brachial, reflex of the great spindle, expiratory, etc.) allow to determine the state of the corresponding reflex arcs, and pathological (dorsal reflex Mendel - Bechterew, carpal-toe reflex, reflex of Bekhterev - Jacobson) reflect the defeat of the pyramidal pathways.
He described some diseases and developed methods of their treatment ("Postecephalitic symptoms of ankylosing spondylitis", "Psychotherapeutic triad of ankylosing spondylitis", "Phobic symptoms of ankylosing spondylitis", etc.). In 1892 Bekhterev described "stiffness of the spine with curvature as a special form of the disease" ("Bekhterev's disease", "Ankylosing spondylitis"). Bekhterev identified such diseases as "choreic epilepsy", "syphilitic multiple sclerosis", "acute cerebellar ataxia of alcoholics."
Created a number of medicinal products. "Ankylosing spondylitis" was widely used as a sedative. For many years he studied the problems of hypnosis and suggestion, including alcoholism. For more than 20 years he studied the issues of sexual behavior and child rearing. He developed objective methods for studying the neuropsychic development of children. He repeatedly criticized psychoanalysis (the teachings of Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, etc.), but at the same time contributed to the theoretical, experimental and psychotherapeutic work on psychoanalysis, which was carried out in the Institute for the Study of the Brain and Mental Activity headed by him.
In addition, Bekhterev developed and studied the relationship between nervous and mental diseases, and circular psychosis, the clinic and the pathogenesis of hallucinations, described a number of forms of obsessive states, various manifestations of mental automatism. For the treatment of neuropsychiatric diseases, he introduced combined reflex therapy and alcoholism, psychotherapy by the method of distraction, and collective psychotherapy.
Creation
In addition to the dissertation "Experience in the clinical study of body temperature in some forms of mental illness" (St. Petersburg, 1881), Bekhterev owns numerous works on the normal anatomy of the nervous system; pathological anatomy of the central nervous system; physiology of the central nervous system; on the clinic of mental and nervous diseases and, finally, on psychology (Formation of our ideas about space, "Bulletin of Psychiatry", 1884).
In these works, Bekhterev was engaged in the study and study of the course of individual beams in the central nervous system, the composition of the white matter of the spinal cord and the course of fibers in the gray matter and, at the same time, on the basis of the experiments performed, elucidating the physiological significance of individual parts of the central nervous system (visual hillocks, vestibule branches of the auditory nerve, lower and upper olives, quadruple, etc.).
Bekhterev was also able to obtain some new data on the localization of various centers in the cerebral cortex (for example, on the localization of skin - tactile and pain - sensations and muscle consciousness on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres, "Doctor", 1883) and also on the physiology of the motor centers of the cerebral cortex (The Doctor, 1886). A lot of Bekhterev's works are devoted to the description of little-studied pathological processes of the nervous system and individual cases of nervous diseases.
Cit .: Fundamentals of the doctrine of the functions of the brain, St. Petersburg, 1903-07; Objective Psychology, St. Petersburg, 1907-10; Psyche and Life, 2nd ed., St. Petersburg, 1904; General diagnosis of diseases of the nervous system, hours 1-2, St. Petersburg, 1911-15; Collective reflexology, P., 1921: General foundations of human reflexology, M. - P., 1923; Pathways of the spinal cord and brain, M. - L., 1926; The brain and activity, M. - L., 1928: Fav. manuf., M., 1954.
Links
- The role of suggestion in public life - speech of V.M.Bekhterev on December 18, 1897
- Biographical materials about V.M.Bekhterev from the Chronos project
1 Regarding the unexpected death of V.M. Ankylosing spondylitis, there are three versions. Among the closest students of VM Bekhterev there was never, of course, published, its own version of the death of the teacher: death at the moment of intimacy with one of the young colleagues, the so-called "sweet death" in the terminology of French authors. According to another version, the death of Bekhterev is connected with the fact that it was he who diagnosed the death of V.I. Lenin: "syphilis of the brain." The most plausible, however, should be considered the version according to which Bekhterev was poisoned by order of I.V. Stalin after Bekhterev, after consulting Stalin about his dry hand, called him "an ordinary paranoid."
Bekhterev Vladimir Mikhailovich(1857-1927) - Russian neurologist, psychiatrist and psychologist, founder of a scientific school. He wrote fundamental works on the anatomy, physiology and pathology of the nervous system. Conducted research on the therapeutic use of hypnosis, including for alcoholism. Works on sex education, behavior of a young child, social psychology... He investigated personality on the basis of a comprehensive study of the brain using physiological, anatomical and psychological methods. Founder of Reflexology. Organizer and head of the Psychoneurological Institute (1908; now named after Bekhterev) and the Institute for the Study of the Brain and Mental Activity (1918).
Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev was born on January 20, 1857 in the family of a minor civil servant in the village. Sorali of the Yelabuga district of the Vyatka province. In August 1867, the boy began his studies at the Vyatka gymnasium. After finishing seven classes of the gymnasium in 1873, Bekhterev entered the Medico-Surgical Academy. He decided to devote himself to neuropathology and psychiatry. In 1879 he was accepted as a full member of the St. Petersburg Society of Psychiatrists. April 4, 1881 V.M. Bekhterev successfully defended his thesis for the degree of Doctor of Medicine.
For the article "On forced and violent movements during the destruction of some parts of the central nervous system", written in 1883, Bekhterev was awarded the silver medal of the Society of Russian Physicians. In the same year he was elected a member of the Italian Society of Psychiatrists.
Vladimir Mikhailovich drew attention to the fact that nervous diseases are often accompanied by mental disorders, and with mental illness, signs of organic damage to the central nervous system are possible. The most famous is his article "Stiffness of the spine with its curvature as a special form of the disease", published in the capital magazine "Doctor". The disease described in this article is currently known as ankylosing spondillitis, or ankylosing spondylitis. Many neurological symptoms discovered by the scientist for the first time, as well as a number of original clinical observations, were reflected in the two-volume Nervous Diseases in Selected Observations, published in Kazan.
Working in Kazan, in the spring of 1893, Bekhterev received an invitation from the head of the St. Petersburg Military Medical Academy to take up the department of mental and nervous diseases. Bekhterev arrived in St. Petersburg and began to create the first neurosurgical operating room in Russia.
In the laboratories of the clinic, Vladimir Mikhailovich, together with his colleagues and students, continued numerous studies on the morphology and physiology of the nervous system. This allowed him to replenish materials on neuromorphology and start work on the fundamental seven-volume work "Fundamentals of the doctrine of the functions of the brain", which outlined general provisions about brain activity. In particular, Bekhterev presented the energy theory of inhibition, according to which the nervous energy in the brain rushes to the center in an active state. It, as it were, flows down to him along the pathways connecting separate areas of the brain, primarily from nearby areas of the brain, in which, as Bekhterev believed, "a decrease in excitability, therefore, oppression" occurs.
In 1894, Vladimir Mikhailovich was appointed a member of the medical council of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and in 1895 - a member of the military medical scientific council under the Minister of War and at the same time a member of the council of the nursing home for the mentally ill.
In May 1918, Bekhterev applied to the Council of People's Commissars with a petition to organize an institute for the study of the brain and mental activity. Soon the institute was opened, and Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev was its director until his death. Bekhterev died on December 24, 1927.
Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev (born January 20, old style, 1857 in the village of Sorali, Vyatka province, now the village of Bekhterevo, Elabuga region of Tatarstan; died December 24, 1927 in Moscow) is a prominent scientist: doctor, neuropathologist, psychiatrist, psychologist, physiologist and morphologist.
Born into the family of a police officer, lost his father early; the mother had difficulty in finding funds to study at the gymnasium. Graduated from the Medical-Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg; in the spring and summer of 1877 he took part in hostilities in Bulgaria (during the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878)
On July 24, 1885, he was appointed an extraordinary professor and head of the Department of Psychiatry at Kazan University. He participated in the organization of the first in Russia district psychiatric hospital in Kazan - he introduced useful and interesting work into the course of treatment, ruled out any forms of violence against patients.
To head the department, subject to the organization of a research laboratory. For its creation, the Ministry of Education allocated 1000 rubles and an annual budget of 300 rubles. It was the first psychophysiological laboratory in Russia.
The subject of study was the structure of the brain and nervous tissue. In 1885, Bekhterev described the most important cell accumulation that is part of the vestibular system.
In the works of 1887-1892. discovered and described the pathways of the spinal cord and brain, showed the connection between individual parts of the cerebral cortex and certain internal organs and tissues - this work brought him worldwide fame.
Bekhterev was one of the first to apply a scientific approach to the upbringing of young children: based on the study of the movements of infants, he showed that personality formation begins in the first months of life.
In the fall of 1893, Bekhterev moved to St. Petersburg, where he took up the department of mental and nervous diseases at the Military Medical Academy. He began teaching neuropathology and psychiatry at the academy and the newly opened Women's Medical Institute.
At the Military Medical Academy, he organized one of the world's first neurosurgical departments.
Using public funds, he created in 1908 the Psychoneurological Institute, which now bears his name.
During the war, the institute operated on the wounded and provided assistance to people who became mentally ill at the front.
In May 1918, he developed a plan for the creation of the Brain Institute, the leadership of which was entrusted to Bekhterev by the Soviet government.
Then, in 1918, Bekhterev announced the creation of a new science - reflexology. In his opinion, an objective study of personality is possible on the basis of the study of reflexes.
On the basis of the law of conservation of energy, the psychic energy of a person cannot disappear without a trace, - argued the founder of reflexology, - therefore, the so-called "immortality of the soul" should be the subject of scientific research.
With such conclusions, Bekhterev did not come to the court in the Soviet state. On December 24, 1927, during the First All-Union Congress of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists, Bekhterev unexpectedly died suddenly.
According to the official version, he “got poisoned with canned food”. The urn with his ashes was buried at the Volkov cemetery in St. Petersburg, the brain is kept at the Institute of the Brain.
The contribution of Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev to medicine is enormous. In addition to the most famous work - the study of the pathways of the brain and spinal cord - Bekhterev made many discoveries in anatomy and morphology.
As a neuropathologist, Bekhterev described a number of diseases, one of which (ankylosing spondylitis) is now called ankylosing spondylitis.
He studied and treated many mental disorders and syndromes: fear of blushing, fear of being late, obsessive jealousy, obsessive smile, fear of someone else's gaze, fear of sexual impotence, obsession with reptiles (reptilophrenia) and others.
For more than 40 years, Bekhterev was engaged in the study and therapeutic use of hypnosis, while developing the theory of suggestion.
In addition to his dissertation "Experience in the clinical study of body temperature in some forms of mental illness", Bekhterev owns numerous works that are devoted to the description of little-studied pathological processes of the nervous system and individual cases of nervous diseases.
BEKHTEREV, VLADIMIR MIKHAILOVICH (1857-1927), Russian neurologist, psychiatrist, morphologist and physiologist of the nervous system. I built my own concept of objective psychology. In his scientific interests, the central place was occupied by psychiatry, the study of the mental life of a person. Paying considerable attention to psychology, he put forward a plan for its transformation into an objective natural science. At the beginning of the 20th century. his first books appeared, which set out the basic principles of objective psychology, later called reflexology. In 1907, Bekhterev organized the Psychoneurological Institute, on the basis of which a network of clinical and scientific research institutes was created, including the first Pedological Institute in Russia. This allowed Bekhterev to link theoretical and practical research.
Developing his objective psychology as a psychology of behavior based on an experimental study of the reflex nature of the human psyche, Bekhterev, nevertheless, did not reject consciousness. He included it in the subject of psychology, as well as subjective methods of studying the psyche, including self-observation. The main provisions of the new science are outlined by him in the works "Objective Psychology" and "General Foundations of Reflexology". He proceeded from the fact that reflexological studies, including a reflexological experiment, supplement the data obtained during psychological research, questioning and self-observation.
In the future, Bekhterev proceeded from the fact that reflexology, in principle, cannot replace psychology, and the last works of his institute gradually went beyond the reflexological approach.
From his point of view, a reflex is a way of establishing a relatively stable balance between an organism and a complex of conditions acting on it. This is how one of the main provisions of Bekhterev appeared that the individual life manifestations of the organism acquire the features of mechanical causality and biological orientation and have the character of an integral reaction of the organism striving to defend and assert its existence in the fight against changing environmental conditions.
Investigating the biological mechanisms of reflex activity, Bekhterev defended the idea of educability, and not of the inherited character of reflexes. So in the book "Fundamentals of General Reflexology" he argued that there is no innate reflex of slavery or freedom, and argued that society carries out a kind of social selection, creating a moral personality. Thus, it is the social environment that is the source of human development; heredity determines only the type of reaction, but the reactions themselves develop during life. Proof of this was, in his opinion, studies of genetic reflexology, which proved the priority of the environment in the development of reflexes in infants and young children.
Bekhterev considered the problem of personality to be one of the most important in psychology and was one of the few psychologists of the early 20th century who interpreted personality at that time as an integrative whole. He considered the Pedological Institute, created by him, as a center for the study of personality, which is the basis of education. He always emphasized that all his interests are concentrated around one goal - "to study a person and be able to educate him." Bekhterev actually introduced into psychology the concepts: individual, individuality and personality, believing that the individual is the biological basis, over which the social sphere of the individual is built.
Bekhterev's studies of the structure of personality were also of great importance, in which he distinguished the passive and active, conscious and unconscious parts, their roles in various types of activity and their interconnection. He noted the dominant role of unconscious motives in sleep or during hypnosis and considered it necessary to investigate the influence of the experience acquired at this time on conscious behavior. While exploring ways to correct deviant behavior, he believed that any reinforcement could fix the reaction. You can get rid of unwanted behavior only by creating a stronger motive that "absorbs all the energy spent on unwanted behavior."
Bekhterev defended the idea that in the relationship between the collective and the individual, it is the individual that is priority, and not the collective. These views dominate in his works "Collective Reflexology", "Objective Study of the Personality". It was from this position that he proceeded, investigating the collective correlative activity that unites people into groups. Bekhterev singled out people inclined to collective or individual correlative activity, and studied what happens to an individual when she becomes a member of a collective, and how, in general, the reaction of a collective personality differs from the reaction of an individual personality.
In his experiments to study the influence of suggestion on human activity, Bekhterev actually first discovered such phenomena as conformism, group pressure, which only a few years later began to be studied in Western psychology.
Proving that personality development is impossible without a team, he at the same time emphasized that the influence of a team is not always beneficial, since any team levels the personality, trying to make it a stereotyped exponent of its environment. He wrote that customs and social stereotypes, in essence, limit the individual, depriving her of the opportunity to freely express her needs.
A.F. Lazursky - the founder of Russian characterology and experimental study of personality
Lazursky is the founder of Russian characterology and experimental study of personality.
AF Lazursky created a new direction in differential psychology - scientific characterology. He stood for the creation of a scientific theory of individual differences. He considered the main goal of differential psychology to be "the construction of a person from his inclinations", as well as the development of the most complete natural classification of characters. He advocates a natural experiment in which the deliberate intervention of a researcher in a person's life is combined with a natural and relatively simple setting of experience. An important point in Lazursky's theory was the provision on the closest connection between character traits and nervous processes. This was the explanation of personality traits by the neurodynamics of cortical processes. Lazursky's scientific characterology was built as an experimental science based on the study of the neurodynamics of cortical processes. Not at first attaching importance to quantitative methods for assessing mental processes, using only qualitative methods, he later felt the inadequacy of the latter and tried to use graphical schemes to determine the child's abilities. The meaning of this concept is that for the first time a provision was put forward on the relationship of the personality, which is the core of the personality. Its special significance also lies in the fact that the idea of personality relations has become the starting point for many Russian psychologists, primarily representatives of the Leningrad-Petersburg school of psychologists. AF Lazursky's views on the nature and structure of personality were formed under the direct influence of the ideas of VM Bekhterev at the time when he worked under his leadership at the Psychoneurological Institute. According to A.F. Lazursky, the main task of the individual is adaptation (adaptation) to environment , which is understood in the broadest sense (nature, things, people, human relationships, ideas, aesthetic, moral, religious values, etc.). The measure (degree) of the activity of a person's adaptation to the environment can be different, which is reflected in three mental levels - lower, middle and higher. In fact, these levels reflect the process of human mental development. Personality in the mind of A.F. Lazursky is the unity of two psychological mechanisms. On the one hand, this is endopsychics - the internal mechanism of the human psyche. Endopsychics reveals itself in such basic mental functions as attention, memory, imagination and thinking, the ability to volitional effort, emotionality, impulsivity, that is, in temperament, mental giftedness, and finally, character. According to A.F. Lazurnyi, endochertes are mainly congenital. Another essential aspect of the personality is exopsychics, the content of which is determined by the attitude of the personality to external objects, the environment. Exopsychic manifestations always reflect the external conditions surrounding a person. Both of these parts are related to each other and affect each other. For example, a developed imagination, which also conditions the ability to creative activity, high sensitivity and excitability - all this presupposes the pursuit of art. The same in relation to the exocomplex of traits, when the external conditions of life, as it were, dictate the corresponding behavior. The process of personality adaptation can be more or less successful. AF Lazursky in connection with this principle distinguishes three mental levels. The lowest level characterizes the maximum influence of the external environment on the human psyche. The environment, as it were, subordinates such a person to itself, regardless of his endospecialties. Hence the contradiction between a person's capabilities and the professional skills they have acquired. The middle level assumes a great opportunity to adapt to the environment, to find your place in it. People who are more conscious, have more efficiency and initiative, choose activities that match their inclinations and inclinations. At the highest level of mental development, the process of adaptation is complicated by the fact that significant tension, intensity of mental life, makes us not only adapt to the environment, but also generates a desire to remake, modify it, in accordance with our own desires and needs. In other words, here we can rather meet the creative process. So, the lowest level gives people insufficiently or poorly adapted, the middle one - those who are adapted, and the highest one - those who are adapting. At the highest level of the mental level, thanks to spiritual wealth, consciousness, and coordination of mental experiences, exopsychic reaches its highest development, and endopsychics forms its natural basis. Therefore, the division goes according to exopsychic categories, more precisely, according to the most important universal human ideals and their characterological varieties. The most important among them, according to AF Lazursky, are: altruism, knowledge, beauty, religion, society, external activity, system, power.
Features of the experimental approach in Russian psychology at the beginning of the XX century
The specifics of the experimental alignment in Russian psychology at the beginning of the 20th century; research N. In general, N. Probably lange, A. Fortunately, f. Indeed azure. Apparently, the formation of a trend based on an experimental method of exploring mental phenomena was carried out under the influence of both the aggregate directions of the world highly emotional science, but also the peculiar socio-cultural messages and the criterion for the formation of Russian emotional cognition.
The main impartial message of the introduction of experience into psychology arose the need for concrete, experimentally unhurriedly verified results of the emotional research of the inhabitant of our planet. Indeed, they were unambiguously extraordinarily extremely necessary in their dramatic development at the end of the twentieth century. medicine and pedagogy. The second premise of the development of experimental psychology was a narrow interaction with the sciences, with which psychology was connected both historically and logically, at first, with the disciplines of the natural science cycle. Apparently, this interaction determined the problematic of truly emotional research and the introduction of truly fair methods of research by psychologists. Moreover, the third message was the logic of the formation of humanly scientific emotional cognition, the feeling of insufficiency and incomprehensibility of introspection as a method and doctrine of very scientific cognition.
The development of natural science psychology in Russia was due to the materialistic tendencies formed in domestic science, embodied in the Russian philosophy of materialism, and even in the works of simply scientific workers - natural scientists: D. On the other hand, and. In short, Mendeleev, I. On the contrary, I. It turned out that Mechnikova, I. Well, m. And now Sechenova, I. Naturally, p. So it is Pavlova, A. In essence a. And yet Ukhtomsky and others.
Features of Russian behavior
If Germany gave the world the doctrine of the physical and chemical foundations of life, England - about the laws of evolution, then Russia gave the world the science of behavior. The creators of this new science, different from physiology and psychology, were Russian scientists - I.M. Sechenov, I.P. Pavlov, V.M. Bekhterev, A.A. Ukhtomsky. They had their own schools and students, and their unique contribution to world science was universally recognized.
In the early 60s. 19th century in the journal "Medical Bulletin" was published an article by Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov "Reflexes of the brain." It made a deafening effect among the reading population of Russia. For the first time since the time of Descartes, who introduced the concept of a reflex, the possibility of explaining the highest manifestations of personality on the basis of reflex activity was shown.
The reflex includes three links: an external impulse, which causes irritation of the centripetal nerve, which is transmitted to the brain, and reflected irritation, which is transmitted along the centrifugal nerve to the muscles. Sechenov rethought these links and added a new, fourth link to them. Irritation becomes in Sechenov's teaching a feeling, a signal. Not a “blind push”, but a distinction between external conditions in which a response action takes place.
Sechenov also puts forward an original view of muscle work. A muscle is not only a "working machine", but also, due to the presence of sensitive endings in it, also an organ of cognition. In the future, Sechenov says that it is the working muscle that performs the operations of analysis, synthesis and comparison of objects with which it operates. But the most important conclusion follows from this: the reflex act does not end with muscle contraction. The cognitive effects of its work are transmitted to the centers of the brain, and on this basis the picture of the perceived environment changes. So the reflex arc is transformed into a reflex ring, which forms a new level of the body's relationship with the environment. Changes in the environment are reflected in the mental apparatus and cause subsequent changes in behavior; behavior becomes mentally regulated (after all, the psyche is a reflection). On the basis of reflexively organized behavior, mental processes arise.
The signal is converted into a mental image. But the action does not remain unchanged either. From movement (reaction), it turns into mental action (consistent with the environment). The nature of mental work changes accordingly - if earlier it was unconscious, now the basis for the emergence of conscious activity is shown.
One of the most important discoveries of Sechenov concerning the work of the brain is his discovery of the so-called centers of inhibition. Before Sechenov, physiologists explaining the activity of the higher nervous centers operated only with the concept of arousal.
The main ideas and concepts developed by I.M. Sechenov, received their full development in the works of Ivan Petrovich Pavlov.
First of all, the doctrine of reflexes is associated with the name of Pavlov. Pavlov divided stimuli into unconditioned (unconditionally elicit a response from the body) and conditioned (the body reacts to them only if their action becomes biologically significant). These stimuli, together with reinforcement, generate a conditioned reflex. The development of conditioned reflexes is the basis of learning, the acquisition of new experience.
In the course of further research, Pavlov significantly expands the experimental field. He moves from the study of the behavior of dogs and monkeys to the study of neuropsychiatric patients. The study of human behavior leads Pavlov to the conclusion that it is necessary to distinguish between two types of signals that control behavior. The behavior of animals is regulated by the first signaling system (the elements of this system are sensory images). Human behavior is regulated by a second signaling system (elements - words). Thanks to words, a person has generalized sensory images (concepts) and mental activity.
Pavlov also proposed an original idea of the origin of nervous disorders. He suggested that the cause of neuroses in people can be the collision of opposite tendencies - excitement and inhibition.
Ideas similar to Pavlov's were developed by another great Russian psychologist and physiologist Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev.
Bekhterev was fascinated by the idea of creating a science of behavior based on the study of reflexes - reflexology. Unlike behaviorists and I.P. Pavlova, he did not reject consciousness as an object of psychological research and subjective methods of studying the psyche.
One of the first Russian and world psychologists, Bekhterev begins to study personality as a psychological integrity. In fact, he introduces into psychology the concepts of an individual, personality and individuality, where the individual is the biological basis, the personality is a social formation, etc. Examining the structure of personality, Bekhterev singled out its conscious and unconscious parts. Like S. Freud, he noted the leading role of unconscious motives in sleep and during hypnosis. Like psychoanalysts, Bekhterev developed ideas about the sublimation and channeling of psychic energy in a socially acceptable direction.
Bekhterev was one of the first to deal with the issues of the psychology of collective activity. In 1921, his work "Collective Reflexology" was published, where he tried to consider the activities of the collective through the study of "collective reflexes" - the group's reactions to environmental influences. The book raises the problems of the emergence and development of the collective, its influence on a person and the reverse influence of a person on the team. For the first time shown such phenomena as conformism, group pressure; the problem of socialization of the individual in the process of development is posed, etc.
Aleksey Alekseevich Ukhtomsky developed a different line in the study of the reflex nature of the regulation of the psyche in his works.
He focused on the central phase of the integral reflex act, and not on the signal phase, as originally by I.P. Pavlov, and not on the motor phase, as V.M.Bekhterev. Ukhtomsky developed the doctrine of the dominant (1923). Under the dominant, he understood the dominant focus of excitation, which, on the one hand, accumulates impulses going to the nervous system, and on the other, simultaneously suppresses the activity of other centers, which seem to give their energy to the dominant center, that is, the dominant.
Ukhtomsky tested his theoretical views both in the physiological laboratory and in production, studying the psychophysiology of work processes. At the same time, he believed that in highly developed organisms, behind a visible "immobility" lurks intense mental work. Consequently, neuropsychic activity reaches a high level not only with muscular forms of behavior, but also when the organism apparently refers to the environment contemplatively. Ukhtomsky called this concept “operational peace”. By the mechanism of the dominant, Ukhtomsky explained a wide range of mental acts: attention (its focus on certain objects, focus on them and selectivity), the objective nature of thinking (isolation of individual complexes from a variety of environmental stimuli, each of which is perceived by the body as a certain real object in its differences from others ). Ukhtomsky interpreted this "dividing the environment into objects" as a process consisting of three stages: strengthening the existing dominant, isolating only those stimuli that are biologically interesting for the body, establishing an adequate connection between the dominant (as an internal state) and a complex of external stimuli. At the same time, what is experienced emotionally is most clearly and firmly fixed in the nerve centers.
RSFSR
the USSR
Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev(January 20 (February 1), Sorali (now Bekhterevo, Yelabuga district) - December 24, Moscow) - an outstanding Russian physician-psychiatrist, neuropathologist, physiologist, psychologist, founder of reflexology and pathopsychological direction in Russia, academician.
Organized in St. Petersburg the Society of Psychoneurologists and the Society of Normal and Experimental Psychology and Scientific Organization of Labor. He edited the journals "Review of Psychiatry, Neurology and Experimental Psychology", "Study and Education of the Personality", "Questions of the Study of Labor" and others.
After his death, V.M.Bekhterev left his own school and hundreds of students, including 70 professors.
Bekhterev Street in Moscow is the location of the largest in Moscow, the 14th city psychiatric hospital named after Bekhterev, which serves all Moscow districts, especially Moscow ZAO.
Versions about the causes of death
According to the official version, the cause of death was canned food poisoning. There is a version that Bekhterev's death is connected with the consultation that he gave to Stalin shortly before his death. But there is no direct evidence that one event is related to another.
According to V. M. Bekhterev's great-grandson, S. V. Medvedev, director of the Human Brain Institute:
“The assumption that my great-grandfather was killed is not a version, but an obvious thing. He was killed for diagnosing Lenin - brain syphilis. "
A family
- Bekhtereva-Nikonova, Olga Vladimirovna - daughter.
- Bekhtereva, Natalya Petrovna - granddaughter.
- Nikonov, Vladimir Borisovich - grandson.
- Medvedev, Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich - great-grandson.
Addresses in Petrograd - Leningrad
- Autumn 1914 - December 1927 - mansion - 25 Malaya Nevka river embankment.
Memory
In honor of Bekhterev, postage stamps and a commemorative coin were issued:
Memorable places
- "Quiet Coast" - Bekhterev's estate in the current village of Smolyachkovo (Kurortny district of St. Petersburg), is a historical monument.
- The house of V. M. Bekhterev in Kirov is a historical monument.
Scientific contribution
Bekhterev investigated a wide range of psychiatric, neurological, physiological, morphological and psychological problems. In his approach, he has always focused on a comprehensive study of the problems of the brain and humans. Carrying out the reformation of modern psychology, he developed his own teaching, which he consistently designated as objective psychology (c), then as psycho-reflexology (c) and as reflexology (c). He paid special attention to the development of reflexology as a complex science of man and society (different from physiology and psychology), designed to replace psychology.
He widely used the concept of "nervous reflex". He introduced the concept of "combination-motor reflex" into circulation and developed the concept of this reflex. Discovered and studied the pathways of the human spinal cord and brain, described some brain formations. Established and identified a number of reflexes, syndromes and symptoms. Physiological reflexes of ankylosing spondylitis (scapular-brachial, reflex of the great spindle, expiratory, etc.) allow to determine the state of the corresponding reflex arcs, and pathological (dorsal reflex of Mendel - Bechterew, carpal-toe reflex, reflex of ankylosing spindle, expiratory, etc.) reflect the defeat of the pyramidal pathways.
He described some diseases and developed methods of their treatment ("Postecephalitic symptoms of ankylosing spondylitis", "Psychotherapeutic triad of ankylosing spondylitis", "Phobic symptoms of ankylosing spondylitis", etc.). Bekhterev described "stiffness of the spine with curvature as a special form of the disease" ("Bekhterev's disease", "Ankylosing spondylitis"). Bekhterev identified such diseases as "choreic epilepsy", "syphilitic multiple sclerosis", "acute cerebellar ataxia of alcoholics." Created a number of medicinal products. "Ankylosing spondylitis" was widely used as a sedative.
For many years he studied the problems of hypnosis and suggestion, including alcoholism.
For more than 20 years he studied the issues of sexual behavior and child rearing. He developed objective methods for studying the neuropsychic development of children.
- on the normal anatomy of the nervous system;
- pathological anatomy of the central nervous system;
- physiology of the central nervous system;
- on the clinic of mental and nervous diseases and, finally,
- in psychology (Formation of our ideas about space, "Bulletin of Psychiatry",).
In these works, Bekhterev was engaged in the study and study of the course of individual beams in the central nervous system, the composition of the white matter of the spinal cord and the course of fibers in the gray matter and, at the same time, on the basis of the experiments performed, elucidating the physiological significance of individual parts of the central nervous system (visual hillocks, vestibule branches of the auditory nerve, lower and upper olives, quadruple, etc.).
Bekhterev also managed to obtain some new data on the localization of various centers in the cerebral cortex (for example, on the localization of skin - tactile and pain - sensations and muscle consciousness on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres, "Doctor") and also on the physiology of the motor centers of the cerebral cortex ( "Doctor", ). A lot of Bekhterev's works are devoted to the description of little-studied pathological processes of the nervous system and individual cases of nervous diseases.
Essays:
- Fundamentals of the doctrine of the functions of the brain, St. Petersburg, 1903-07;
- Objective Psychology, St. Petersburg, 1907-10;
- Psyche and Life, 2nd ed., St. Petersburg, 1904;
- Bekhterev V.M. Suggestion and its role in public life. St. Petersburg: Edition of K.L. Rikker, 1908
- Bechterew, W. M. La suggestion et son rôle dans la vie sociale; trad. et adapté du russe par le Dr P. Kéraval. Paris: Boulangé, 1910
- General diagnosis of diseases of the nervous system, hours 1-2, St. Petersburg, 1911-15;
- Collective reflexology, P., 1921
- General foundations of human reflexology, M. - P., 1923;
- Pathways of the spinal cord and brain, M. - L., 1926;
- The brain and activity, M. - L., 1928: Fav. manuf., M., 1954.
From the photo archive
see also
Notes (edit)
Literature
- Nikiforov A.S. Bekhterev / Poslesl. N. T. Trubilina .. - Moscow: Young Guard, 1986. - (Life of wonderful people. Series of biographies. Issue 2 (664)). - 150,000 copies(in lane)
- Chudinovskikh A.G. V.M. Bekhterev. Biography. - Kirov: OOO "Triada-S", 2000. - 256 p. with. - 1000 copies.
Historiography and references
| Bekhterev, Vladimir Mikhailovich in Wikiquote | |
| in Wikisource | |
| Bekhterev, Vladimir Mikhailovich at Wikimedia Commons |
- Akimenko, M.A. (2004). Psychoneurology is a scientific direction created by V.M.Bekhterev
- Akimenko, M. A. & N. Decker (2006). V.M.Bekhterev and medical schools of Leipzig University
- Bekhterev, Vladimir Mikhailovich in the library of Maxim Moshkov
- The role of suggestion in public life - speech of V.M.Bekhterev on December 18, 1897
- Biographical materials about V.M.Bekhterev from the Chronos project
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