2.2. Individual psychological characteristics of a person. Temperament, character and ability.
In psychology, when they talk about the individual-typological characteristics of a person, they usually mean such phenomena as temperament, character and abilities. Temperament - the biological foundation on which the personality is formed. It reflects the dynamic aspects of behavior, mainly of an innate nature. V.S.Merlin considers the properties of temperament to be individual characteristics that
regulate the dynamics of mental activity in general;
characterize the features of the dynamics of individual mental processes;
are stable and permanent;
are in strictly regular proportions that characterize the type of temperament;
due to the general type of the nervous system.
It should be borne in mind that individual dynamic characteristics, if they are features of temperament, are not due to any objective content of activity. Temperament- This is a personality trait that characterizes the dynamics of the course of mental processes and activities. The word temperament was introduced into circulation by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (U-IV centuries BC). He understood it as a property that determines the individual differences of people and depends on the proportions of 4 fluids in the body: blood (in Latin "sanguine"), lymph (in Greek "phlegm"), bile (in Greek "chole") and black bile (in Greek "melana hole"). The predominance of one of the liquids corresponded to a certain temperament. The name of the types of temperament has survived to this day (sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, melancholic). At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the formation of temperaments in modern psychology is explained in a completely different way. It is proved that at the heart of each type of temperament are the features of the human nervous system, the properties of this nervous system. The following properties of the human nervous system were experimentally identified:
strength, manifested in endurance, working capacity of the nervous system and in a certain way characterizing the processes of excitation and inhibition (therefore, strong and weak types of the nervous system are distinguished);
poise, characterizing the optimal ratio of the processes of excitation and inhibition;
mobility, which is the characteristic of the speed of movement of nervous processes along the cerebral cortex.
Psychophysiologist I.P. Pavlov showed that each type of temperament has its own combination of properties of the nervous system:
phlegmatic - strong, balanced, inert type of the nervous system;
sanguine - strong, balanced, mobile type of the nervous system;
choleric is a strong, unbalanced, mobile type of the nervous system;
melancholic is a weak type of nervous system.
The main psychological characteristics of temperament include:
sensitivity (sensitivity), revealing the picture of what is the smallest force of external influences that causes mental reactions of the individual and what is the speed of this response;
reactivity, showing the degree and intensity of the individual's involuntary reactions to internal and external stimuli (criticism, threat, etc.);
activity, characterizing the degree of energy, performance of a person in activity, his ability to overcome obstacles, purposefulness, perseverance, focus on activity, etc .;
the ratio of reactivity and activity, revealing a picture of what the personality's activity depends on - from random external and internal circumstances, moods, random events or from consciously set goals, life aspirations, plans, etc .;
the rate of reactions, which characterizes the speed of actions, movements, speed of speech, intelligence, resourcefulness, etc .;
extroversion;
introversion;
plasticity, which characterizes the ease of adaptation of a person to new and unexpected situations, flexibility of behavior;
rigidity, showing the tendency of the individual to inert behavior, established habits and stereotypes of life, inertia.
Choleric- a person is fast, sometimes even impulsive, with strong, quickly igniting feelings, which are clearly reflected in speech, facial expressions, gestures; often - quick-tempered, prone to violent emotional outbursts;
Sanguine- a person is fast, agile, giving an emotional response to all impressions; his feelings are directly reflected in external behavior, but they are not strong and easily replace one another.
Melancholic- a person characterized by a relatively small variety of emotional experiences, but great strength and duration of them; he does not respond to everything, but when he does, he experiences strong feelings, although he expresses little of his feelings outside;
Phlegmatic person- a person who is slow, balanced and calm, who is not easily emotionally hurt and cannot be pissed off; his feelings do not manifest in any way outside.
In conclusion, it should be noted that temperament belongs to the so-called genotypic personality traits, completely depends on heredity and does not change during life.
Character- This is a personality trait, expressed in its relationship to the world around it, to society, to activity, to oneself, to other people, to things and objects. The character includes stable personality traits, which from the content side describe her behavior and activities. Therefore, in psychology, character is often understood as a set of individually unique traits that are manifested in the ways of activity typical for a given personality, are found in these typical circumstances and express the attitude of the individual to these circumstances. Human relationships and character traits are formed during life and therefore character is an acquired personal formation. Character is a set of stable individual personality traits that develops and manifests itself in activity and communication, conditioning her typical ways of behavior. The concept of character is very different in different theoretical constructions. In foreign characterology, three areas can be distinguished:
constitutionally - biological (E. Kretschmer - character, essentially comes down to the sum of the constitution and temperament);
psychoanalytic (Z. Freud, C.G. Jung, A. Adler, etc.). The character is explained on the basis of a person's unconscious drives;
ideological (Robeck's psychoethical theory): Character consists in the inhibition of instincts, which is determined by ethical and logical sanctions. What instincts and what sanctions are inhibited depends on the internal immanent properties of the personality. Baud character determines the social status of a person, etc.
In domestic psychology, the study of character is associated with the names of N.O. Lossky, P.F. Lesgaft, A.F. Lazursky, A.P. Nechaev, V.I. Strakhov, B.G. etc. Here you can also distinguish various directions: idealistic, biologizing, materialistic. Based on various approaches to this topic, it is possible to note the social-evaluative connotation in determining the character; significant stability of psychological characteristics. Character is formed on the basis of temperament under the influence of living conditions. In character, the traits of temperament are contained in a transformed form. They are understood and accepted or not accepted by a person.
Character structure... In the structure of character, different authors distinguish different properties. So, B.G. Ananiev considers character to be an expression and condition of the integrity of the personality and refers to its main properties as direction, habits, communicative properties, emotional and dynamic manifestations formed on the basis of temperament:
poise - imbalance;
sensitivity - aggressiveness;
latitude - narrowness;
depth - superficiality;
wealth, meaningfulness - poverty;
strength - weakness.
ND Levitov emphasizes the certainty of character, its integrity, complexity, dynamism, originality, strength, firmness. These and many other attempts to isolate the structural properties of character require analysis and generalization. Characteristic qualities (traits, properties) found by a person in various types of relations to the world around them are of great importance:
in relation to society (ideological or non-ideological, actively participating in politics or apolitical, etc.);
in relation to activity (active or inactive, hardworking or lazy, etc.);
in relation to other people (altruist or egoist, sociable or withdrawn, etc.);
in relation to oneself (having adequate or inadequate self-esteem, confident or arrogant, etc.);
in relation to things (kind, greedy, etc.).
Capabilities- these are individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another and are related to the success of the performance of the activity. When talking about abilities, keep in mind the following:
These are the characteristics that distinguish one person from another. B. M. Teplov considers the most important sign of abilities to be the individual uniqueness of productive activity, the originality and uniqueness of the techniques used in the activity.
Abilities serve the successful performance of an activity. Some researchers, for example N.A. Menchinskaya, believe that in this case it is more logical to talk about learning as success in acquiring skills, knowledge, and skills.
Abilities are characterized by the possibility of transferring developed skills and abilities to a new situation. In this case, the new task should be similar to the previously solved tasks not by the sequence of methods of action, but by the requirements for the same mental properties of a person.
Abilities are based on inclinations. Makings- these are natural prerequisites that are a condition for the development of abilities, not only in the sense that they give originality to the process of their development, but also in the sense that, within certain limits, they can determine the content side and influence the level of achievement. The inclinations include not only the anatomical, morphological and physiological properties of the brain, but also mental properties to the extent that they are directly and directly determined by heredity. Ability is a dynamic concept. They are formed, developed and manifested in activity.
General and special abilities. Special abilities - the ability for certain types of activity (mathematical ability, musical ability, teaching, etc.). General abilities are the ability to develop special abilities. Giftedness- this is a qualitatively unique combination of abilities, on which the possibility of achieving more or less success in performing one or another activity depends. The concept of ability is usually associated with mental activity. But there are no grounds for such a narrow interpretation of abilities, although traditionally it is the sphere of mental activity that has been studied and continues to be studied in connection with abilities. High general mental development may not be accompanied by the manifestation in any special area of abilities or any kind of special giftedness. However, the manifestation and achievement of high special abilities, special giftedness is unthinkable without the presence of general abilities, general giftedness. The inclinations include morphological and functional features of the structure of the brain, sense organs, movement, acting as a prerequisite for the development of abilities.
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Individuality is a combination of the psychological characteristics of a person that make up his originality, his difference from other people. It manifests itself in character traits, temperament, habits, interests, in the qualities of cognitive processes. A person's personality is unique in its individuality. If personality traits are not represented in the system of interpersonal relations, then they are not essential for assessing the personality of an individual and do not receive conditions for development. Only those individual qualities that are most "involved" in the leading activity for a given social community act as personal ones.
Temperament is a characteristic of an individual in terms of his dynamic characteristics: intensity, speed, pace, rhythm of mental processes and states. Two components of temperament - activity and emotionality - are present in most classifications and theories of temperament. The activity of behavior characterizes the degree of energy, impetuosity, speed and, conversely, slowness, inertia, and emotionality - the features of the flow of emotions, feelings, moods and their quality: sign (positive, negative) and modality (joy, grief, fear, sadness, anger, etc.) etc.).
Character is a set of stable individual personality traits that develops and manifests itself in activity and communication, conditioning her typical ways of behavior. Cognition of the character of an individual makes it possible, with a significant degree of probability, to predict his behavior and thereby adjust the expected actions and deeds. The character is due to the social being of the personality, the assimilation social experience, which gives rise to typical character traits, determined by the typical circumstances of the life path of people in specific historical conditions. Among the many traits of an individual's character, some act as leading ones. The character is manifested in the human system to the surrounding reality: in relation to other people (sociability or isolation, truthfulness or deceit, tact or rudeness, etc.); in relation to the case (responsibility or bad faith, hard work or laziness, etc.); in relation to oneself (modesty or narcissism, self-criticism or self-confidence, pride or humiliation); in relation to property (generosity or greed, thrift or wastefulness, neatness or slovenliness). For the formation of character, social education, the inclusion of the individual in collectives is of decisive importance.
27. The problem of abilities in psychology. Makings and capabilities. General and special abilities.
Inclinations - congenital anatomical and physiological features of the nervous system, brain, which constitute the natural basis for the development of abilities. The inclinations are nonspecific in relation to the specific content and specific forms of activity, they are polysemantic. Individual inclinations are somewhat selective, not the same in relation to different types of activity.
Abilities - individual psychological characteristics of a person, which are a condition for the successful implementation of one or another productive activities... They are closely related to the general orientation of the personality, to how stable a person's inclinations to a particular activity are. A qualitative analysis of ability is aimed at identifying those individual characteristics of a person that are necessary for the effective implementation of any particular type of activity. Quantitative measurements of ability characterize the measure of their severity. The most common form of assessing the severity of ability is tests. The level and degree of development of the ability express the concepts of talent and genius.
Special abilities - the psychological abilities of an individual, which are the possibilities of successfully performing a certain type of activity (musical, stage, literary, etc.). The development of a special ability is based on the corresponding inclinations, for example, ear for music and memory.
28. Methodology of psychology. Theory, method, technique.
Methodology psychology - a system of philosophical knowledge concerning the description and substantiation of scientific research methods used in psychology, from the point of view of the possibility of obtaining accurate and reliable knowledge of mental phenomena using these methods. Part of the methodology of psychology concerns the key scientific concepts with the help of which theoretical descriptions and explanations of mental phenomena are constructed. Methodology as a science is called upon to consider the methods underlying the activity, to study the grounds for the choice of methods, to solve the questions of the legitimacy of these methods.
The methodology is a system of levels: upper level - general methodology - a set of general principles, methods and standards; second level - general scientific principles (systems approach); third level - specific scientific principles ( private methodology); fourth level - specific technique.
Psychological theories lack logical rigor and certainty. The role of theory in psychology is significant. Three levels of theories are highlighted: general - all-embracing; middle-level theories - a set of verifiable propositions and hypotheses (for example, frustration-aggression) based on experience; empirical generalizations.
Method - in a broad sense - any concept that regulates the formulation and implementation of a task, any idea, an instrument of empirical, theoretical study of an object; in a narrow sense - a regulator of data collection, output building. The principle is also a method of posing a problem, interpreting, generalizing, transferring conclusions to other areas.
29. Basic principles of psychology: activity, development, determinism, systematic.
The basic principle of psychology is the principle determinism a. It involves the study of the causation of the psyche from various factors. An important stage in the implementation of the principle of determinism was the creation of L.S. Vygotsky cultural and historical concept. The next stage is the idea that the external world was opposed by an active person, actively perceiving objective reality and transforming it. Further, the problem of mental development, training and education was solved. Determinism acted as the application of physiological laws to the understanding of mental phenomena.
Principle activity based on the fact that the perception of social influences, the assimilation of culture is carried out by a person in the process of active interaction with the outside world, in the process of his activities.
Idea development entered psychology under the influence of the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin. Development has become a general principle of the methodology of psychology (Rubinstein). The laws of all phenomena are cognized only in development, in the process of movement and change. Development is the main way of existence of a personality throughout its individual path.
In psychology, the principle consistency associated with the specifics of the subject of the psyche. The systematic approach in psychology was developed by gestalpsychologists, in the domestic one - by V.P. Kuzmin and B.F. Lomov. The psyche is presented as a system that does not split into components, expressing a complex structure in which individual properties and elements acquire new characteristics that they did not have before being included in the system. The principle of consistency is closely related With the principle of determinism.
Behavior is understood as the external manifestations of a person's mental activity. Behavior occurs in the external world and is detected by external observation, and the processes of consciousness occur inside the subject and are detected by self-observation. Behavioral facts: firstly, all the external manifestations of physiological processes associated with the state, activity, communication of people - posture, facial expressions, intonation, looks, glitter of eyes, redness, paleness, trembling, intermittent or restrained breathing, muscle tension, etc. ; secondly, individual movements and gestures, such as bowing, nodding, nudging, clenching the hand, banging with a fist, etc .; thirdly, actions as larger acts of behavior that have a certain meaning.Finally, these are actions - even larger acts of behavior, which, as a rule, have a public, or social, sound and are associated with norms of behavior, relationships, self-esteem, etc. etc.
The psychology of behavior emerged in the early 20th century after the crisis in psychology (there was a change in the subject of psychology). It was not consciousness - Wundt, but human behavior - the founder was John Watson. The direction was named - behaviorism. He believed that psychology should study not consciousness, but human behavior, i.e. external manifestations of a person's mental activity. He argued that consciousness is not included in the category of scientific concepts, tk. there are no scientific methods for studying consciousness. The scientific method must be objective (independent of the expert) and reproducible. Facts P: 1. All external manifestations of physiological processes - posture, facial expressions, intonation, views, muscle tension, etc .; 2. Separate movements and gestures - nod, push, squeeze the hand, etc .; 3. Actions as larger acts of behavior that have a certain meaning - a request, order, etc.; 4. actions are even larger acts of behavior that have social or social significance associated with norms of behavior. In Watson's scientific terms, behavior is a system of reactions. To study it, he proposed to divide behavior into the simplest behavioral districts. He offered to study the Holy Islands and see how more complex acts of behavior are formed on the basis of these districts. He believed that the behavioral district fits the formula
S (stimulus) - R (p-tion). It declares the S - R relation as a unit of behavior. As the general final tasks of psychology, he outlines: 1. to come to predict the behavior (reaction) of a person according to the situation (stimulus); 2. to conclude by the reaction about the stimulus that caused it, that is, by the behavior to predict R, and by R to conclude about S. Behaviorists experimented mainly on animals.
They did this not because they were interested in animals in themselves, but because animals, from their point of view, have a great advantage: they are "pure" objects, since consciousness is not mixed with their behavior. They boldly transferred the results obtained to humans. J. Watson distinguishes congenital (sneezing, hiccuping, sucking, smiling, crying, movements, etc.) and acquired reactions. A new step in the development of behaviorism was made by the study of a special type of conditioned reactions, cat. were called instrumental (E. Thorndike, 1898) or operant (B. Skinner, 1938). The phenomenon of instrumental, or operant, conditioning consists in the fact that if any action of the individual is reinforced, then it is fixed and then reproduced with great ease and constancy. Patterns of behavior: Thorndike: not an external impulse, but a problem situation was taken as the initial moment of a motor act. Then the connection
S-R was characterized by the following features: 1) starting point - a problem situation; 2) the body opposes it as a whole; 3) he is active in seeking choices; and 4) is learned through exercise. He formulated the foundations of his approach in several laws: 1. The laws of exercise, according to which, other things being equal, the reaction to a situation is associated with it in proportion to the frequency of repetitions of connections and their strength.
2. The law of readiness: Exercise changes the readiness of the body to conduct nerve impulses. 3. The law of associative shift: if, with the simultaneous action of stimuli, one of them causes a reaction, then the others acquire the ability to cause the same reaction. This step reflected the “law of effect”: if frequency, strength, and contiguity were mechanical determinants, then effects were understood as special states inherent in the biopsychic level of behavior determination.
The law of effect stated: “any act that causes satisfaction in a given situation is associated with it, so that if it reappears, then the appearance of this act becomes more likely than before. On the contrary, any act that causes discomfort in a given situation is split off from it, so that when it re-emerges, the occurrence of this act becomes less likely. From this it followed that the result of the action is evaluated by the body and, depending on this assessment, the connections between S and R are fixed. Then neobihev-m appeared. The founder is Tolman. He said that it is impossible to describe a simple behavioral district according to Watson, because the formula does not take into account the internal states of a person, because different districts can be given to the same stimulus. He introduced a new parameter O - intermediate variables S - O - R - inner experiences of a person (desires, knowledge, goals). Merits of the behaviorist: introduced into psychology a strong materialistic spirit - a natural scientific path of development; introduced an objective method based on the registration and analysis of externally observable facts, processes, events; the class of objects under study has expanded (behavior of animals, pre-speech babies); individual sections of psychology (problems of learning, education of skills) have been advanced. Disadvantages of behavior-ma: rapprochement of the psyche of the animal and the person; ignorance of consciousness; underestimation of the complexity of human mental activity.
Topic: Motives, their types and functions. Motive is an incentive to activity associated with satisfying a need, i.e. the motivating and defining choice of the direction of activity is a subject of need. Motivation is a motivation that causes activity.
In foreign psychology, a number of features of the nature and functions of the motive in the regulation of behavior have been identified: 1. The incentive and directing function of the motive. 2. Determination of human behavior by unconscious motives. 3. The hierarchy of motives. 4. Striving for balance and tension - here the motive is understood purely energetically.
In the theory of Leontiev's activity, the realization of needs in the course of search activity and, thereby, the transformation of its objects into objects of needs is considered as a general mechanism for the emergence of a motive. Hence: the development of motive occurs through a change and expansion of the range of activities that transform reality.
In a person, the source of the development of motive is the process of social production of material and spiritual values. Such potential motives in otnogenesis are the values, ideals, interests inherent in a given society, which, in the event of their internalization, acquire an incentive force and become a motive. According to Leontiev, in the course of a search activity, a meeting of a need with its object usually occurs. At the moment a need meets an object, the need is objectified, which is a very important event. It is important in that a motive is born in the act of objectification. The motive is also defined as an object of need. If we look at the same event from the side of need, then we can say that through objectification the need receives its concretization. In this regard, the motive is defined in another way - as an objectified need. A motive is that objective that stimulates and directs activity, responding to one or another need, specifying a need or satisfying it. That is, the main function of motives is to induce and direct activity. Following the objectification of the need and the appearance of a motive, the type of behavior changes sharply, if up to this point the behavior was undirected, search, now it acquires a "vector", or direction. The motive is what the action is for. "For the sake" of something, a person, as a rule, performs many different actions.
A set of actions that are linked by one motive is called an activity, and more specifically a special activity or a special type of activity. Correlation of motives and consciousness. Motives are not always recognized, therefore, two classes of motives are distinguished: those that are recognized and those that are not. Examples of motives of the first class can serve as large life goals that direct a person's activities over long periods of his life - these are motives-goals. The connection between motives and personality. It is known that human motives form a hierarchical system. Usually, the hierarchical relationship of motives is not fully realized. They become clearer in a situation of conflict of motives. New motives are formed in the course of activity. The theory of activity describes the mechanism of the formation of new motives, which is called the mechanism of the shift of the motive to the goal. The essence of this mechanism is that the goal, previously prompted to its implementation by some motive, eventually acquires an independent incentive force, i.e. itself becomes a motive. The transformation of a goal into a motive can only happen if positive emotions accumulate. There are the following functions of motives: 1. incentive (to activity); 2.directing (the motive directs the activity); 3. goal-generating (motive generates an action aimed at satisfying a need. Goals form the basis of actions); 4. meaningful (motive gives significance to actions, importance). What we do takes on a personal meaning for us, i.e. experience of increased subjective significance of an object or event associated with a motive.
Possible grounds for the classification of motives. 1) Actual motives - what is being done (professional choice, leisure). Potential - those that can organize the action and determine the possible options for a person's life. When social conditions change, then motives change. When we are forced to make an unattractive choice for ourselves under the influence of conditions, then potential motives acquire significance (neuroses, withdrawals). 2) Leading and secondary motives. The motivational sphere of the personality is hierarchized. Activity is motivated by several motives. Human activity is polymotivated, i.e. simultaneously regulated by two or more motives. 3) Sense-forming and motives stimuli. After all, a person in his activity objectively realizes a whole system of relations: to the objective world, to the people around him, to society and to himself. Some motives, prompting activity, at the same time give it a personal meaning - they are called leading or meaning-forming. 4) According to the subject content: 1. Subject - they organize the final orientation of the activity. Always clearly indicate what should be (eg: build a house). The motive consists of the content and the active nature of the transformation. The modes of transformation are: rejection, renunciation, acquisition, creation, maintenance, expression, preservation, aggression, avoidance. 2. Functional motives: for example, the need for people to communicate, do not have a final direction. Motivate the activity itself. Something that is pleasant by the process itself, and not by its end (it's nice to read a book). Play activity is an element of pursuit (to hide so that they do not find it). A motivating mass of intermediate goals (intermediate motivations). This is motivation that is tied to individual small intermediate goals (analogous to animals - instinct). 3. Regulatory: appear less frequently. Levin: barriers are something that does not organize, but limits activity, does not stimulate individual activity. Moral motives. 5) By the level of generalization. Dodonov, Merey. What really stimulates activity occurs at different levels of generalization (love Beethoven's music or love his Moonlight Sonata). The idea of fairness is different levels of generalization. Generalized, specific, single motives. 6) By the degree of awareness. Conscious and unconscious. Often a person is not aware of the motives of his behavior and invents reasons.
Motivation is a consciously presented motive that has nothing to do with the real.
Topic Perception, its main properties and patterns.
Perception is a holistic reflection of reality (objects, situations, events and phenomena) that occurs when physical stimuli are directly exposed to the receptor surfaces of the sense organs.
Difference from sensation - perception reflects the object as a whole in the aggregate of its properties, and sensations are individual properties of the stimulus. Types of perception. Depending on the forms of reflection, there are: 1. perception of space; 2. perception of movement; 3. perception of time. Depending on the goal, there are: 1. Intentional perception, characterized by the fact that it is based on a deliberately set goal. It is associated with the volitional efforts of a person; 2. unintentional perception, in which objects of the surrounding reality are perceived without a specially set task, when the process of perception is not associated with volitional efforts. Depending on the degree of organization, the following are distinguished: 1. Organized perception (observation) is a purposeful, systematic perception of objects or phenomena of the surrounding world; 2. disorganized perception is the usual systematic perception of the surrounding reality. Naturally, they distinguish visual, auditory, tactile perception. Physiological foundations of perception. It is caused by simultaneously acting complex stimuli, is carried out by the simultaneous and coordinated activity of several analyzers and proceeds with the participation of the associative parts of the cerebral cortex and speech centers.
Properties of perception: 1. selectivity of perception - a person's ability to perceive only those objects that are of greatest interest to him. It depends on the interests, attitudes and needs of the individual. 2. objectivity - the ability of a person to reflect the surrounding reality as the impact of its specific objects belonging to a certain class of phenomena. In this case, the brain clearly distinguishes between an object, a background, and a perceptual circuit.
3. apperception - the dependence of perception on the previous experience of a person. Apperception gives an active character to perception. Perceiving objects, a person expresses his attitude towards them. 4. the meaningfulness of perception shows that objects perceived by a person have a certain life meaning for him. 5. constancy of perception is constancy in perception, which is conditioned by the knowledge of the physical properties of the object, as well as the fact that the object of perception is perceived in the circle of other objects known to man. It ensures the constancy of the perceived size, shape and color of objects when changing distance, angle, illumination. The constancy of perception is explained by the experience acquired in the process of individual development of the personality. 6. the integrity of perception is expressed in the fact that the images of reflected objects appear in the human mind in the aggregate of many of their qualities and characteristics, even if some of these qualities are not perceived at the moment. 7. categoricality is manifested in the fact that perception is generalized, and we designate each perceived object with a word-concept, refer to a certain class. 8.Historical perception.
Of all the psychological theories, the problem of perception has been most studied by gestalt psychologists and from their point of view, the laws of perception:
1.proximity - the closer objects are to each other in the visual field, the more likely they are to be organized into single, integral images; 2. the similarity of processes in the visual field: the larger the unified and integral images, the more likely they are to be organized; 3. continuation - the more elements in the visual field are in places corresponding to the continuation of the regular sequence, i.e. they function as parts of familiar contours, the more likely they are to be organized into single, holistic images; 4. isolation - the more the elements of the visual field form closed wholes, the more readily they will be organized into separate images.
Perception theories:
Associative theories of perception. (Müller, Mach, Helmholtz, Goering, Wundt). A perceived image is a complex combination of primary elements - sensations, and sensation is a conscious state of a sense organ that has been exposed to an isolated external stimulus. Consequently, associative theories of perception are based on the principle of specific energy of the sense organs and the receptor concept of sensations. The combination of sensations into perception occurs through associations of contiguity and similarity, where the leading role is given to past experience.
Structuralist school (Titchener): perception is a complex of sensations, therefore, the task of the psychologist is to find elementary sensations in his experience through self-observation. This is a method of analytical survey. J. Gibson's theory. Perception is the process of obtaining information about the environment, as a result of which the uncertainty of the position of the organism in it decreases. The associates incorrectly asserted that point stimuli are reflected, since a single stimulus cannot carry any information about the object. Perception is an active process. Activity is necessary, since there is no initial isomorphism between objects of the external world and their perception. The decisive role is played by active movements of the whole organism and sense organs. It is important that the movements are highlighted in the flow of stimulation in order to better navigate environment... J. Bruner's theory of perceptual hypotheses. Perception includes the act of categorizing. We give some influence to the input of the organism, and it responds, i.e. assigns it to the corresponding class of things or phenomena.
Perception is a process of categorization: it is a movement from features to categories, and in many cases it occurs “unconsciously”. Gestalt theory of perception. There are 3 types of gestalt: physical gestalt - by studying outside; physiological gestalt - the study of brain matter and neuroconnections; phenomenal gestalt - the study of what we see.
Gestalt theory deals with phenomena that are found in the visual field, which is, in turn, a dynamic distribution of energy, and its parts are interdependent due to their participation in the whole. The field is structured to the extent that there are differences in intensity or quality within it. To the extent that the field is structured, it contains potential energy capable of producing (perceptual) work. By the visual field, we mean the spatial structure (construct) into which the phenomena of the visual field can be ordered. The visible image is given by stimulation. Spatial relationships are set in the external world through the elements. Therefore, it is not the elements that are perceived, but the ratios that are collected in a holistic image.
Topic: The concept of personality in psychology. The psychological structure of the personality.
Personality is a basic concept in psychology - it is the social quality of the individual; subject of public relations. Personality - 1) the individual as a subject of social relations and conscious activity; 2) the systemic quality of the individual determined by his involvement in social relations, which is formed in joint activities and communication.
Personality, according to Leontiev, is born twice: 1. preschool age - the beginning of the formation of a hierarchy of motives (subordination to social norms); 2. adolescence - expressed in the emergence of the desire and ability to be aware of their motives, as well as actively work on their subordination and re-subordination.
Leontiev identifies several personality parameters: 1. The wealth of the individual's connections with the world; 2. The degree of hierarchization of activities, their motives. So, a high degree of hierarchization of motives is expressed in the fact that a person, as it were, measures his actions against the main motive-goal for him - the so-called. life purpose. 3. General type of personality structure.
The personality structure is a stable configuration of the main, hierarchical motivational lines within itself. The motivational sphere of the personality is always multifaceted. “The internal correlation of the main motivational lines in the totality of human activities form, as it were, a general“ psychological personality profile ”.
Psychologists give different answers to the question of what a person is. The concept of "personality" usually includes such properties that are more or less stable and testify to the individuality of a person, defining his actions that are significant for people. Personality is a person taken in the system of his psychological characteristics that are socially conditioned, manifest in social connections and relationships, are stable, determine the moral actions of a person, which are essential for him and those around him. Along with the concept of "personality" in science, the term "individual", "individuality" is often used. The concept of "individual" includes both qualities that distinguish a given person from other people, and properties common to him and many other people. Individuality is the narrowest concept in terms of content. It contains only those individual and personal properties of a person, such a combination of them that distinguishes this person from other people.
Characteristics of a person can be given if we reveal its individual psychological characteristics, such as temperament, abilities, character. When we try to understand and explain why different people, by life circumstances, placed in the same or approximately the same conditions, achieve different successes, we turn to the concept of ability, believing that the difference in success can be quite satisfactorily explained by them. The same concept is used by us when we need to understand why some people learn knowledge, skills and abilities faster and better than others. Meanwhile, the data of psychological research and pedagogical experience indicate that sometimes a person who initially did not know how to do something and thus did not differ favorably from those around him, as a result of training, extremely quickly masters skills and abilities and soon overtakes everyone on the path to mastery. He has greater abilities than others. Abilities are something that is not limited to knowledge, skills and abilities, but explains (ensures) their rapid acquisition, consolidation and effective use in practice. This definition was given by our Russian scientist B.M. Teplov. The concept of "ability", in his opinion, contains three ideas. “First, by abilities we mean individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another. Secondly, not all individual characteristics in general are called abilities, but only those that are related to the success of performing any activity or many activities. Thirdly, the concept of "ability" is not limited to those knowledge, skills or abilities that have already been developed by a given person. " Abilities and knowledge, abilities and skills, abilities and skills are not identical to each other. In relation to skills, abilities and knowledge, a person's abilities act as a certain possibility. Just as a grain thrown into the soil is only an opportunity in relation to an ear, which can grow from this grain only if the structure, composition and moisture of the soil, weather, etc. will be favorable, human abilities are only an opportunity for the acquisition of knowledge and skills. Ability is an opportunity, and the required level of skill in a particular business is reality. Musical abilities revealed in a child are in no way a guarantee that the child will be a musician. For this to happen, special training is required. Abilities are found only in activities that cannot be carried out without the presence of these abilities. You can’t talk about a person’s ability to draw if you don’t see his work. An ability that does not develop, which in practice a person ceases to use, is lost over time. The success of any activity does not depend on any one, but on a combination of different abilities. The combination of various highly developed abilities is called giftedness, and this characteristic refers to a person capable of many different types of activities.
It is necessary to distinguish between natural, or natural, abilities and specific human abilities that have a socio-historical origin. Many of the natural abilities are shared by humans and animals, especially the higher ones. These elementary abilities are perception, memory, thinking. A person, in addition to biologically determined ones, has abilities that ensure his life and development in a social environment. These are general (mental abilities, subtlety and accuracy of hand movements, developed memory, perfect speech and a number of others) and special higher intellectual abilities (musical, mathematical, linguistic, technical, literary, sports and a number of others), based on the use of speech and logic. Theoretical and practical abilities are distinguished by the fact that the former predetermine a person's tendency to abstract theoretical thinking, and the latter to concrete, practical actions. Abilities can be called the ability to convince others, to achieve mutual understanding, to influence people. As for the ability to perceive people and give them correct assessments, it is in social psychology has long been considered an ability of a special kind. Until now, in psychology, the main attention was paid precisely to the subject-activity abilities, although the abilities of an interpersonal character are of no less importance for the psychological development of a person. Without mastering speech as a means of communication, for example, without the ability to adapt to people, correctly perceive and evaluate them and their actions, interact with them and establish good relationships in various social situations, normal life and mental development of a person would be simply impossible. A person's lack of such abilities would be an insurmountable obstacle just on the path of his transformation from a biological being into a social one.
The individual psychological characteristics of a person include the properties of temperament (they are innate), which have a significant impact on the formation of a person's character and behavior, sometimes determine his actions, his individuality. Temperament is the individual characteristics of a person that determine the dynamics of the course of his mental processes and behavior. Dynamics is understood as the pace, rhythm, duration, intensity of mental processes. The idea and doctrine of temperament in their origins go back to the works of the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. In modern psychology, the classification of temperaments belonging to the German philosopher I. Kant is used. I. Kant divided human temperaments into two types: temperaments of feelings and temperaments of activity. In general, “only four simple temperaments can be established: sanguine, melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic”.
The sanguine temperament of activity characterizes a person of a very cheerful disposition. He appears to be an optimist, full of hope, a humorist, a joker. It quickly ignites, but it cools down just as quickly, it loses interest in what, quite recently, worried and attracted to itself. A sanguine person promises a lot, but does not always keep his promises. He easily and with pleasure enters into contacts with strangers, is a good conversationalist, all people are his friends. He is distinguished by kindness, willingness to help. Strenuous mental or physical work quickly tires him.
The melancholic temperament of activity, according to Kant, is characteristic of a person of the opposite, mostly gloomy mood. Such a person usually lives a complex and tense inner life, gives great importance everything that concerns him has heightened anxiety and a vulnerable soul. Such a person is often restrained and especially in control of himself when making promises. He never promises what he is unable to do, he suffers greatly from the fact that he cannot fulfill the given promise, even if its fulfillment does not directly depend on himself.
The choleric temperament of activity characterizes a hot-tempered person. They say about such a person that he is too hot, unrestrained. At the same time, such an individual quickly cools down and calms down, if they give in to him, go to a meeting. His movements are impetuous, but short-lived.
The phlegmatic temperament of activity refers to a cold-blooded person. It expresses a tendency toward inactivity rather than strenuous, active work. Such a person slowly gets into a state of excitement, but for a long time. This replaces the slowness of getting into work.
The properties of temperament exist and are manifested not by themselves, but in a person's actions in various socially significant situations. Temperament definitely influences the formation of his character, but the character itself expresses a person not so much as a physical, but as a spiritual being.
It is believed that the properties of temperament are determined mainly by the properties of the human nervous system. Temperament is a psychobiological category in the sense that its properties are neither completely innate nor dependent on the environment. The psychological characteristics of temperament are not the properties of the nervous system per se or their combination, but the typical features of the course of mental processes and behavior that these properties generate: activity, productivity, excitability, inhibition and switchability. The active side of perception, attention, imagination, memory and thinking is characterized, respectively, by how much a person is able to focus, concentrate his attention, imagination, memory and thinking on a certain object or its aspect. One person remembers, recalls, examines, thinks about solving a problem faster than another. The productivity of all the listed cognitive processes can be assessed by their products, by the results obtained during a certain period of time. Productivity is higher where in the same time it is possible to see, hear, remember, imagine, solve more. Productivity should not be confused with efficiency. Excitability, inhibition and switchability characterize the rapidity of the emergence, termination or switching of a cognitive process from one object to another, the transition from one action to another. For example, some people need more time than others to get involved in mental work or to switch from thinking about one topic to another. Some people remember information or recall it faster than others. It should also be borne in mind here that these differences do not determine the abilities of people.
With regard to objective activity, activity means the strength and amplitude of the movements associated with it. They are instinctively wider in an active person than in a less active person. For example, increased temperamental activity in sports gives rise to wider and stronger movements in an athlete, included in various movements, than in someone who has this property of temperament weakly expressed.
Personality and temperament are interconnected in such a way that temperament acts as a common basis for many other personal properties, especially character. He, however, determines only the dynamic manifestations of the corresponding personality traits. Such personality traits as impressionability, emotionality, impulsivity and anxiety depend on temperament. The combination of these properties creates an individual type of temperament. Those manifestations of temperament, which ultimately become a personality trait, depend on training and education, on culture, customs, traditions, and much more. Temperament to some extent affects the development of a person's abilities, which include movements with such essential characteristics as pace, reaction speed, excitability and inhibition. First of all, these abilities, which include complex and accurate movements with a difficult trajectory and an uneven pace. They also include abilities associated with increased performance, resistance to interference, endurance, the need for prolonged concentration of attention.
Temperament is the natural basis for the manifestation of the psychological qualities of a person. However, with any temperament, it is possible to form qualities in a person that are unusual for this temperament. Psychological research and pedagogical practice show that temperament changes somewhat under the influence of living conditions and upbringing. Temperament can also change as a result of self-education. Even an adult can change his temperament in a certain direction. It is known, for example, that A.P. Chekhov was a very balanced, modest and delicate person. But here interesting fact from his life. In one of the letters to Olga Knipper-Chekhova's wife, Anton Pavlovich makes such a valuable confession: “You write that you envy my character. I'm used to restraining myself, because it is not proper for a decent person to dissolve myself. In the old days I was doing the devil knows what. " It is interesting to note that some people, having learned the peculiarities of their temperament, deliberately develop certain methods themselves in order to master it. This was done, for example, by A.M. Gorky, who restrained the violent manifestations of his temperament. To do this, he deliberately switched to various side effects with objects. With people who expressed views opposite to him, A.M. Gorky tried to be impassive and calm.
Literally translated from Greek, character means an imprint .. Character is a set of stable personality traits that determine a person's attitude to people, to work performed. Character manifests itself in activity and communication (as well as temperament) and includes what gives a person's behavior a specific, characteristic shade (hence the name "character"). Character is interconnected with other aspects of the personality, in particular with temperament and abilities. Temperament affects the form of manifestation of character, in a peculiar way coloring one or another of its features. So, persistence in a choleric person is expressed in ebullient activity, in a phlegmatic person - in concentrated thinking. The choleric person works energetically, passionately, the phlegmatic person works methodically, slowly. On the other hand, the temperament itself is rebuilt under the influence of character: a person with a strong character can suppress some of the negative aspects of his temperament, control its manifestations. Ability is inextricably linked with character. A high level of abilities is associated with such character traits as collectivism - a feeling of inseparable connection with the team, a desire to work for its good, belief in one's own strengths and capabilities, combined with constant dissatisfaction with one's achievements, high demands on oneself, and the ability to be critical of one's work. The flowering of abilities is associated with the ability to persistently overcome difficulties, not lose heart under the influence of failures, work in an organized manner, and show initiative. The connection between character and abilities is also expressed in the fact that the formation of such character traits as diligence, initiative, decisiveness, organization, perseverance, occurs in the same activity of the child in which his abilities are formed. For example, in the process of labor as one of the main types of activity, on the one hand, the ability to work develops, and on the other, industriousness as a character trait.
The characteristics of an individual depend on his mode of thinking, feelings and motives, therefore, are closely related to social conditions and specific circumstances.
That are repeated in typical situations are character traits. People differ among themselves by courage or cowardice in moments of danger, isolation or sociability in relationships and the like. Scientists have developed many classifications describing the psychological. Patriotic school separates two directions of systematization of character traits.
1. Mental processes form personality traits
The volitional sphere is responsible for the level of perseverance, decisiveness, independence, organization, discipline, self-control.
Emotional internal processes make a person impressionable, responsive, inert, indifferent, quick-tempered and harsh.
The level of intellectual development determines intelligence, curiosity, resourcefulness, profundity.
In the character orientation system, the category of properties is divided in relation to oneself, to people, to the world around them and to activity.
For example, a person refers to the world around him, according to his own convictions or absolute unprincipledness. The belief system is based on one's own experience and upbringing.
Psychological characteristics of character in relation to activity are conditioned by vital goals. Character traits are manifested in priority interests. The instability of inclinations is visible against the background of the disturbed integrity of the personality and the lack of independence. On the contrary, people with constant attachments and interests are simultaneously characterized as purposeful and persistent.
Psychological characteristics of character differ in two people with the same interests. After all, they can treat themselves or others in different ways. Therefore, one is cheerful, and the second is sad, one is modest, and the other is obsessive, selfish or altruist. Two personalities with the same orientation have a different understanding of the ways to achieve the goal, choose different models of behavior, because they have different motivations. The need for success determines the psychological characteristics of actions aimed either at the desire to simply avoid failure, or at an active struggle for victory. Therefore, someone takes the initiative, and someone deviates from the slightest responsibility.
In relation to people, deceit or honesty, sociability, politeness, responsiveness are observed.
Self-attitude is based on a healthy level of selfishness, while low or high self-esteem can be observed.
Psychological features of perception
In humans, visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, olfactory and with the help of which the process of perception is carried out, are developed to varying degrees.
The perception of space consists in determining the distance of an object from the observer, from objects, its parameters and shape. Visual analyzers, hearing, skin and motor receptors work. Perception is provided to a person by a special organ, which is called it is located in the inner ear.
To perceive time, a person has to use analyzers of internal organic sensations, in addition to auditory, visual and motor sensations. Some individuals wake up at the right time without an alarm clock. Such people are said to have developed a sense of time in the course of their lives.
Not all types of perception have been completely studied yet; scientists are actively exploring this area of the human psyche.